قال الله تعالی:

إِنَّمَا یُرِیدُ اللَّهُ لِیُذْهِبَ عَنْکُمُ الرِّجْسَ أَهْلَ الْبَیْتِ وَیُطَهِّرَکُمْ تَطْهِیرًا

Indeed, Allah desires to repel all impurity from you, O People of the Household, and purify you with a thorough purification. (Surat al-Ahzab 33:33)

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History of Islam

Up to the Demise of the Prophet

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قَالَ رَسُولُ اللهِ صلی الله علیه و آله

إنِّی تَارِکٌ فِیکُمُ الثَّقَلَیْنِ: کِتَابَ اللهِ وَعِتْرَتِی أهْلَ بَیْتِی، مَا إنْ تَمَسَّکْتُمْ بِهِمَا لَنْ تَضِلُّوا بَعْدِی أبَداً، وَإنَّهُمَا لَنْ یَفْتَرِقَا حَتَّی یَرِدَا عَلَیَّ الْحَوْضَ.

The Messenger of Allah (s) said:

“Verily, I am leaving among you two precious things [Thaqalayn]: The Book of Allah and my progeny [‘Itrah], the members of my Household [Ahl al-Bayt]. If you hold fast to them, you shall never go astray. These two will never separate from each other until they meet me at the Pond [hawz] (of Kawthar).”

Some of its references (üith little difference):

Al­hakim an­Nayshaburi, Al­Mustadrak `ala al-Sahihayn (Beirut), vol. 3, pp. 109-110, 148, 533

Muslim, Al-Sahih, (English translation), book 31, hadiths 5920-3

At­Tirmidhi, Al-Sahih, vol. 5, pp. 621-2, hadiths 3786, 3788; vol. 2, p. 219

An-Nassa’i, Khasa’is ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, hadith 79

Ahmad ibn hanbal, Al-Musnad, vol. 3, pp. 14, 17, 26; vol. 3, pp. 26, 59; vol. 4, p. 371; vol. 5, pp. 181-182, 189-190

Ibn al­Athir, Jami` al­Usul, vol. 1, p. 277

Ibn Kathir, Al­Bidayah wa’n­Nihayah, vol. 5, p. 209

Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-`A¨im, vol. 6, p. 199

Nasir ad-Din al-Albani, Silsilat al-Ahadith as-sahihah (Kuwait: Ad-Dar as-Salafiyyah), vol. 4, pp. 355-358

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History of Islam Up to the Demise of the Prophet

BY:

Mahdi Pishva'i

Translated by Dr. Mahmoud Farrokhpey

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نام کتاب: تاریخ اسلام تا رحلت پیامبر (ص) نویسنده: مهدی پیشوائی مترجم: محمود فرخ پی

History of Islam up to the Demise of the Prophet (s)

Author: Mahdi Pishva'i

Translator: Dr. Mahmoud

Farrokhpey

Editor: Badr Shahin

Project supervisor:

Translation Unit, Cultural Affairs Department /The Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) World Assembly (ABWA)

Number of pages: 367

ISBN:978-964-529-257-5

Publisher: The Ahl

al-Bayt (‘a) World Assembly

First Edition 2007

Printed by: I`timad Press

copies: 5000

Rights Reserved For

The Ahl Al-Bayt (a. s) World Assembly

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Women in the Arab Society 50

The Tragedy of Women 51

Chapter Two Moral Features of the Arabs 57

Opposing Traits 57

The Roots for the Arab's Good Manners: 58

Ignorance and Superstition 59

Arab Sciences and Arts 60

An illiterate nation 61

Poetry 61

Arabs and the Neighboring Civilizations 62

The Arab's Inferiority vis-à-vis Iran and Rome 64

Imaginary Pride 66

The Ignorance Era 67

Chapter Three

Religions in the Arabian Peninsula 71

Monotheists 71

Christianity 73

Christianity in Yemen 74

Christianity in hirah 75

Judaism 76

Jews in Yemen 78

The Sabians 79

Manichaeism 80

Star Worshipping 82

The Worshipping of Jinn and Angels 83

The Appearance of Mecca 85

The Remnants of Abraham's Religion 86

The Beginning of Idolatry Among Arabs 87

Did Idolaters Believe in Allah? 89

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The Chaotic State of Religion 92

Drastic Changes 94

The Development and Significance of Mecca 96

The commercial position 96

The Holy Kaaba 98

Trade and Custodianship of Quraysh 99

Quraysh's Power and Influences 102

Section Two the propher From Birth to Prophethood

Chapter One

Ancestors of the Holy Prophet 105

Muhammad's Lineage 107

`Abd al-Muttalib’s Personality 109

The Household of Monotheism 110

Chapter Two

Childhood and Adolescence 113

The Birth 113

Infancy and Childhood 114

His Mother’s Demise 117

`Abd al-Muttalib’s Demise 118

Journey to Damascus 119

Historical Distortions by the Christians 121

Chapter Three

the prophet’s Youth 125

hilf al-Fuzul 125

Second Journey to Damascus 127

Marrying Khadijah 129

Installation of the Black Stone 130

`Ali in the School of Muhammad 132

SECTION THREE

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FROM PROPHETHOOD TO EMIGRATION

Chapter One

Prophethood and promulgation 139

On the Threshold of Prophethood 139

The Start of Prophethood 141

An Untrue Account 143

Criticism 144

Secret Invitation to the New Religion 149

The First Muslim Woman and Man 150

The Reasons Behind `Ali's Taking the Lead 151

The Pioneer Groups in Acceptance of Islam 155

A) The youth 155

B) The Deprived and the Oppressed 157

Inviting His Relatives to the New Religion 159

Chapter Two

The Public Propagation 163

The Start of the Public Invitation 163

Struggle with Quraysh 164

Abu-Talib's Announcement of Assistance 165

Motives of Quraysh's Oppositions 165

Chapter Three

consequences of Opposition 173

Torturing Muslims 173

Emigration to Abyssinia 174

The Birth of Fatimah 177

The Night Ascension 178

The Evaluation of the Narrations on mi`raj 179

Economic and Social Boycott 180

The Death of Khadijah and Abu-Talib 183

The Role of Khadijah 184

The Role of Abu-Talib 185

Abu-Talib's Faith 185

(1) His Poems and Statements 186

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(2) His Protection of the Holy Prophet 187

The Prophet's wives 189

Ummu-habibah 191

Ummu-Salamah 192

Zaynab bint Jahsh 193

The Holy Prophet's Journey to Ta’if 196

Did the Holy Prophet seek Refuge? 198

Attraction of the Holy Qur'an 200

Accusation of Magic 201

Inviting the Arab Tribes to Islam 202

Section Four

From Emigration to Universal Invitation

Chapter One

Emigration to Yathrib 207

The Basis of Islam's Influences in Yathrib 207

The First Muslim Group of Yathrib 209

The First Treaty of `Aqabah 210

The Second Treaty of `Aqabah 211

The initial Stages of emigration to Yathrib 212

Conspiracy of murdering the Holy Prophet 213

The Prophet's Migration 214

A Great Sacrifice 215

The Prophet's Arrival at Quba 217

Arrival at Yathrib 218

The Start of the Hijri Calendar 219

Chapter Two

Major proceedings in Medina 223

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The Construction of a Mosque 223

The Suffah Followers 224

General Treaty 224

A Brotherly Contract 226

Nonaggression Pact 229

The Hypocrites 231

Chapter Three

Conspiracies of the Jews 233

The Jews' Sabotage 233

Motives of the Jews' Oppositions 235

Changing the kiblah 237

Chapter Four

Establishment of Muslim Military Forces 241

Formation of the Islamic Army 241

Military Maneuvers 243

The Prophet's Objectives of Military Maneuvers 244

The Expedition of `Abdullah Ibn Jahsh 247

The Battle of Badr 249

Factors of Victory 252

Results of Muslims' Victory 254

Breach of Banu-Qaynuqa` Treary 257

The Marriage of Imam `Ali and Lady Fatimah 259

The Battle of Uhud 260

Muslims’ victory at the first 262

The Enemy’s Victory 263

Consequences of the deafeat at Uhud 266

The Unsuccessful Attack of Banu-Asad 269

The Event of Bi’r Ma`unah 269

Campaign against Banu’l-Nazir 270

The Battle of the Ditch 273

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The Treason of Banu-Quray¨ah 276

Reasons of the failure of the Allies 277

(1) Disagreement of Quray¨ah and the Allies 278

(2) The killing of `Amr ibn `Abd-Wudd 278

(3) Divine Assistance 280

The War of Banu-Quray¨ah 282

Analysis and Criticism 283

The War of Banu’l-Mustalaq 286

The Journey for `Umrah 287

The Rizwan Allegiance 289

The hudaybiyah Truce 289

The Prophet’s Prediction 291

Bearings of the hudaybiyah Truce 291

SECTION FIVE

FROM UNIVERSAL INVITATION TO DEPARTURE

Chapter One

Universal Invitation to Islam 297

The Holy Prophet’s Universal Mission 297

The Start of the Universal Invitation 298

Conquest of Khaybar 299

The Fate of the Jews of Khaybar 305

Fadak 306

Chapter Two spread of Islam 307

The war of Mu’tah 307

The conquest of Mecca 310

The Quraysh breach of truce 310

The Prophet’s General Amnesty 313

The Outcomes of the conquest of Mecca 315

The War of hunayn 316

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The War of Tabuk 320

Imam `Ali; the successor in Medina 322

Hardships and obstacles on the way 325

Treaties with local governors 326

The consequences of the war of Tabuk 326

The spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula 327

Disavowal of Unbelievers Announcement 328

General treaties 328

Long-termed treaties with Arab tribes 328

The Prophet's special envoy and representative 329

Announcement of Disavowal and Warning 330

Mutual Cursing with the Najran Christians 331

Chapter Three The Farewell Pilgrimage and the Demise of the Prophet 335

The Farewell Pilgrimage 335

The Prophet's Historical Sermon 337

A great virtue 338

The Event of Ghadir 341

Witnesses and signs 350

The Brigade of Usamah 357

The Prophet's Supreme Objective 359

The Unrecorded Will 361

The Demise of the Great Leader of Islam 362

A Perspective on the New Community of Muslims 363

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al-Bayt (a.s)—those who have always been ready to refute those accusations and calumnies and have tried to be always in the frontline of this struggle on the basis of the expediencies of time and space.

The experiences in this field, contained in the books of the scholars belong to the School of the Ahl al-Bayt (a.s), are unique in their own right. It is because these experiences are based upon knowledge and preeminence of intellect and reasoning, and because they are devoid of blind fanaticism or whims and caprices. These experiences address experts, scholars and thinkers in a manner that appeals to healthy minds and pure human natural disposition [fitrah].

In a bid to assist those who are in quest of truth, the Ahl al-Bayt (a.s) World Assembly has endeavored to enter a new phase of these worthy experiences by doing researches and translating the works of contemporary Shi`ah writers or those who, through divine guidance, have embraced this noble school.

The Assembly is also engaged in the study and publication of the valuable works of pious predecessors and outstanding Shi`ah personalities so that those who search for the truth may quench their thirst from this palatable fountain where they find the truth which the School of the Prophet’s Household (a.s) offers to the entire world.

It is hoped that the dear readers will not deprive the Ahl al-Bayt (a.s) World Assembly of their valuable opinions, suggestions, and constructive criticisms in this arena.

We also invite scholars, translators and other institutions to assist us in propagating the pure

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Muhammadan Islam.

We ask God, the Exalted, to accept this humble effort and give us success to enhance it under the auspices of His vicegerent on earth, al-Mahdi (may Allah, the Exalted, expedite his glorious advent).

It is appropriate here to express our utmost gratitude to Mr. Mahdi Pishva'i for writing the book, to Dr. Farrukh Pey for translating it, to Badr Shahin for editing the translation. We should also like to thank colleagues who took part in accomplishing this task especially the staff of the Translation Office for fulfilling their responsibility.

Cultural Affairs Department The Ahl al-Bayt (a.s) World Assembly

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northern border.(1)

The Arabian Peninsula is surrounded by the Persian Gulf, the Sea of Oman, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean except for its southern sections. Nevertheless, it suffers from severe lack of water and is considered one of the driest and hottest areas of the world. It even lacks a large river or a navigable waterway. Instead, it has lands which are sometimes flooded with rainfalls.

The existence of a mountain range, which starts from the Sinai Peninsula and extends all over the western border of Arabia, acting as a lofty wall, and which winds around the southwest corner of the peninsula to go around the southern and eastern sectors of Arabia as far as the Persian Gulf is the main reason for the extreme dryness of this Peninsula. Thus, Arabia is surrounded, on three sides, with this lofty mountain-wall and this hinders humidity of the seas from entering this land.(2)

On the other hand, the extent of the neighboring water is so insufficient that it could not modify the warmth and dryness of these vast African-Asian lands which are low in receiving humidity. This is worsened by the blowing of the poisoning Monsoon winds inside Arabia which stops the rain-carrying winds from the Indian Ocean coming from the south from entering the Arabian Peninsula(3).

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existence up to the advent of Islam. There exist two drastic conditions in the Arabian Peninsula: either there is water, or there is no water. This parameter has had tremendous effects on life patterns of people: it sets apart the southern section, i.e. Yemen, from the central and northern sections.

(1) The Ma`in State: This government was in existence between 1400 and 850 BC and fell with the creation of the Saba' State.

(2) The hazramawt State: This state existed between 1020 and 65 BC and fell to the Saba' State.

(3) The Saba' State: This state was in existence between 850 and 115 BC and ended due to the establishment of the himyari Saba' and Ridan government.

(4) The Qataban State: This state existed between 865 and 540 BC and came to an end with the establishment of the Saba' State.

(5) The States of Saba', Ridan, hazramawt and the vicinity of Yemen, whose vocal dynasties were called Tubba` and lived between 115 BC and 523 AD, their capital was ²afar.(1)

A Prosperous Civilization in the South of Arabia

Historians have admired the Yemeni bright civilization. An example is Herodotus, the great Greek historian of the fifth century BC, who mentions the civilization of this land which embodied lofty castles in Saba' with doors engraved with precious stones; these castles contained golden-ware and silver-ware and beds made of precious metals.(2) Some historians refer to a glorious, twenty-floor castle, called Qur'an in Sana’a, which consisted of one hundred rooms with externally high walls and mirror-

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decorated ceilings.(1) Strabonn, a famous Roman tourist, paid a visit to this city. Referring to the civilization in this land, he writes:

The city of Ma'rib was a strange city because the ceilings of its castles were made of ivory with gilded scripts and jewels. The elegant Kitchenware made any human being wonder.(2)

Likewise, the Islamic historians and geographers, Mas`udi (died 346 AH), and Ibn Rustah (one of the scholars of the third century AH) talk of the luxurious life of people in this region and of its prosperous life patterns prior to the advent of Islam.(3)

Archeological investigations in the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as the research of historians, have all located valid documents concerning the glorious civilization in this ancient land. The remaining ruins in Aden, Sana’a, Ma'rib and hazramawt all attest to an Arab civilization in the south, i.e. in Yemen, and the neighboring lands. This civilization had been a rival for the Phoenician and Babylonian civilizations. One of the features of the ancient civilization in Yemen was a huge dam, called Ma'rib.(4)

Being constructed in accordance with rigorous

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geometrical calculations, this dam attests to a profound knowledge on the part of the engineers and constructors of this dam. This dam could make agriculture prosper in that area.(1)

Besides agriculture, the Yemenis were engaged in trade. The Sabaeans were trade agents between the east and the west because in those days the country of Yemen rested among several civilized countries. The Indian traders used to take their merchandise to Yemen and hazramawt through the Indian Ocean and then the Yemeni traders used to take them to Ethiopia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Palestine, The cities of Madyan, Adwam, Al-`Amaliqah and the western lands and the Meccan Arabs used to take the same merchandise and carry them over land to the then advanced cities of the world.(2)

The Yemenis used to carry out trade with the Far East for a long time.(3) The navigation problems and hardships on the Red Sea had led the Sabaeans follow land routes. For this reason, they used to travel between Yemen and Damascus along the western shore of the Arabian Peninsula. This road, crossing Mecca and Petra, used to divide towards Egypt, Damascus and Iraq.(4)

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gardens We gave to them, two gardens yielding bitter fruit and growing tamarisk and a few lute-trees. This We requited them with because they disbelieved; and We do not punish any but the ungrateful. And We made between them and the town which We had blessed other towns to be easily seen, and We apportioned the journey therein: Travel through them nights and days, secure. And they said: O our lord! Make spaces to be longer between our journeys; and they were unjust to themselves; so We made them stories and scattered them with an utter scattering; most surely there are signs in this for every patient, grateful one. (34:15-19)

The destruction of this dam is reported by hamzah Isfahani to have taken place in 400 before Islam.(1) According to Abu-Rayhan al-Bayruni, it took place 500 years prior to the advent of Islam.(2) And Yaqut al-hamawi mentions the destruction of this dam to be the result of Abyssinian domination. Some historians consider it to have occurred between the years 542 and 570 AH because the Abyssinian's domination was highest during the middle of the sixth century.(3) But the destruction of the dam must have been gradual: it fell apart after several repairs. In the Holy Qur'an, reference is made to the nation of Tubba` and their final days on two occasions:

Are they better or the people of Tubba`(4) and those

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before them? We destroyed them, for surely they were guilty. (44:37)

Others before them rejected prophets: the people of Noah and the dwellers of al-Rass and Thamud, and `Ad and Pharaoh and Lut's brethren and the dwellers of the grove and the people of Tubba`; all rejected the apostles; so, My threat came to pass. (50:12-14)

Mecca and its suburbs; the tribes Bujaylah and Khath`am and some other groups went to the region of Sarawat and dwelt there,(1) each initiating a series of events.

14th century BC, Alexander of Macedonia in the 4th century BC, and Gallous at the time of August, the Roman Emperor, in the first century AD, to conquer this land nor did the Iranian kings show any interest to conquer this region. For this very reason, the people of hijaz continued their nomadic life without any external interference.(1) Concerning this, a historian writes:

When Demetrius, the Greek army-general (after Alexander) arrived at Petra to conquer it, the Arab desert-dwellers said to him, “O great Prince, why have you come to fight us? We are living on a desert with no comfort of life whatsoever. We have chosen life here to remain our own masters, not to receive orders from anybody. Now accept our gifts and return home from where you have come. If you do so, we shall remain your most devoted friends. However, if you decide to fight us and refuse to accept our peace proposal, you have to destroy your life-comforts. You cannot change our life-modes to which we have grown accustomed since our childhood. You would not benefit, either, to take some of us as prisoners-of-war. This is because those captured ones shall never become your slaves.”

Having considered this, Demetrius accepted their gifts and returned home, refusing to partake in a war which did not offer anything except for hardships and nuisances.(2)

A scientist has observed:

“The Arab Island is a complete example of dependence of man over land. Inside countries such

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as India, Greece, Italy, England, and the United States, we have always seen some adventurous conquerors who have ventured to defeat the native dwellers and to make them obedient. There has never occurred in the history of Arabia any conqueror who has decided to occupy this land.(1)

had had its permanent effect on the Arab's body and mental abilities. Nomadic Arabs considered it beyond their dignity to be involved in either agriculture or other crafts and industries.(1) They would belittle the civilized states and their regulations; they used to prefer desert life to city life.(2)

The desert Arab was the son of nature and the infinite and borderless desert. No building could ever interfere with the clean air of his environment; the sun's everlasting rays fell over him without the hindrance of the clouds. He had erected no dam against rain or torrents. Everything was kept in the form it was created by God. Thus, the desert’s son was as free as his environment. Neither farming nor engagement in any industry could deter him from his freedom; nor could the city crowds bother him in any way. He cared for freedom because he had lived in it. No rules or regulations could mar his freedom. He used to fight with anybody who tried to deprive him of his freedom. He was bound by two things only: the principles of idolatry and its ceremonies on the one hand and his tribal customs on the other. However, his commitment towards his tribal customs had deep roots.(3)

La Mense, the Belgian Orientalist, writes:

The Arab was an example of democracy and freedom, but an extreme form which had no limits. The Arab

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rebellion against any power which intended to limit his freedom (even when this limit was in his favor) reveals the roots of the crimes which fill most of Arab history.(1)

as unity of religion, language or history. A tribe was defined as a collection of some affiliated families and the bonds which brought relatedness among them were the familial bonds, and the unity of common ancestors. This is because the members of a tribe considered themselves as of the same blood.(1)

The combination of some families would create a tent and a combination of several tents would bring forth a tribe. Even the composition of big association, such as that of the Jews, was based on consanguinity and common ancestors. These groups would set up their tents in such a way as to form tribes of several thousand people each. Then, they would migrate from one place to another, following their cattle.(2)

eloquence, were taken into consideration.(1)

The Shaykh did not use force or coercion in judicial, military and other general affairs. He used to consult with the tribal consultative committees. This latter managerial body elected the Shaykh who continued to keep his job as long as his electorates were happy with him.(2) However, in accordance with the tribal tradition, everybody had to obey the head of the tribe. When a Shaykh died, either his eldest son or another elderly man who possessed the same traits would be the tribal leader.

Islam fought against the tribal system and did away with it. It did not consider race or clan as significant as it built the newly established Islamic society on the basis of “unity of faith,” which is the strongest social bond. In this way, Islam substituted common faith for consanguinity.

Islam called all the believers as brethren (the Holy Qur'an, 49:10). In this way, the foundation of the Arab social structure was changed.

would do anything possible for his tribe; he would even sacrifice his own life for it.(1)

An Arab used to be over-protective of his family members, such as brothers, nephews and other relatives. He used to protect his relative be he good or tyrant. In the Arab's ideology, if anybody refrained from helping his brother or nephew, his honor would be marred and damaged. Regarding this, they would say:

Help out your brother whether he is an oppressor or oppressed.

An Arab has written the following poem in this regard:

When a man is asked by his brothers to help them, he would not delay helping them out.(2)

In this way, if a tribal member was insulted, the whole tribe would feel this insult. Therefore, all tribal members had to participate in obliterating this spot of dishonor.(3)

Islam has condemned this kind of nonsensical prejudice, dogmatism and harmful zeal and has called it irrational:

When those who disbelieved harbored in their hearts feelings of disdain; distain of the days of ignorance. (48:26)

The Holy Prophet has stated:

“Anybody who invites others to engage in a dogmatic piece of affair or bears prejudice stays out of Islam.”(4)

“Anybody who engages in prejudice or is shown

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irrational sympathy stays out of religion.”(1)

The Holy Prophet once said, “Help out your brother, whether he is an aggressor or is an oppressed.” People remarked, “It is evident that an oppressed one should be helped out? How should we help out an oppressor?” The Holy Prophet replied, “Stop his aggression.”(2)

life. This was because the dominating dictum of the desert would say: “Blood is washed off only with blood.” No blood-money was accepted.

Once, a nomadic Arab was asked, “Are you ready to let go of anybody who has wronged you?” He replied, “I will take revenge and then go to hell.”(1)

and the fourth chief from his own tribe will have the next chief from his own tribe as well.”(1)

The Arabs at the time of ignorance used to boast about the numbers of their tribe members; in this way, they disheartened rival tribes.

One day, there was an argument between two tribes; each enumerated his tribal points of honor and claimed that the number of the dignified persons and the sheer number of the members was superior to that of the rival tribe. They started calling heads of all tribal members. The counting of the living members did not help. So, they went to the cemetery to count the dead.(2) The Holy Qur'an has condemned such ignorant and irrational boastings:

Abundance diverts you, until you come to the graves, Nay! You shall soon know. (102:1-3)

among the Arab tribes. A typical example was the rivalry between the `Adnanite Arabs (in the north) and the Qahtanite Arab (in the south).(1) For this very reason, an Arab gave great significance to his parentage. al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir said to Khosrow:

The members of other nations do not care about their parentage; if they are asked about their ancestors, they will lack the necessary knowledge. This was completely different in the case of Arabs, who recognized their ancestors fully. The Arabs would not accept foreigners as members of their clans. They would not enter any interaction with strangers. An Arab is not called by any other name than his father's.(2)(3)

Thus, it is not surprising to see the science of genealogy, which was one of the limited sciences in those days, receiving a prominent significance. Genealogists received lots of respect, as well. Alusi, a prominent researcher on Arab issues, writes:

“Arabs in the Age of Ignorance put a lot of emphasis

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on their parentage because this kind of recognition was one of the means to cooperate with others. They really needed this sort of recognition, because they lived in separate locations and the fire of war was always blazing. Plunder was a common practice. Since they were reluctant to accept anybody's help in order to defeat their enemies, they had to stick to their parentage, because the love and caring for ones’ relatives would result in mutual cooperation and would prevent disunity.(1)

Islam, however, rejected any concept of racial superiority. Although the verses of the Holy Qur'an were revealed among the Arabs and the tribe of Quraysh, they were never addressed to any Qurayshite or any Arab. Rather, these sacred verses are addressed to people in general. When Muslims are reminded of their duties, they are referred to as believers. According to the Holy Qur'an, racial differences are natural things. However, it rejects boasting about one's race, and recognizes the criterion of piety as the base for values:

O you men! Surely We have created you of a male and a female, and made you tribes and families that you may know each other, surely the most honorable of you with Allah is the one among you most careful of his duty, surely Allah is Knowing, Aware. (49:13)(2)

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The Holy Prophet emphatically rejected boasting about one's race or parentage. Examples are the following:

(1) On the Conquest of Mecca when the Quraysh's main stronghold fell, people of Quraysh considered themselves superior; hence, the Holy Prophet remarked:

O people: God, through Islam, has strongly rejected taking pride in one's parentage which existed at the age of Ignorance. Remember, you are not at the Age of Ignorance. Remember, you are the offspring of Adam, and Adam was created of dust. The best of God's servants are the most pious. Arabism could not possibly be the father of anybody. But Arabic is an eloquent language. One who is a loser in life could not be saved through racial or ancestral privileges.(1)

(2) During his last pilgrimage (hijjat al-wada`; Farewell Pilgrimage) and through a detailed discourse, the Holy Prophet warned the attendants, saying:

“No Arab has any superiority over any non-Arab except for piety.”(2)

While confirming Salman in his discussion with Quraysh and his condemnation of the Arab’s wrong ideology in believing in racism, the Holy Prophet (s), said:

“O People of Quraysh; one's honor rests on one’s religion; one's manhood and honor rest on one’s behavior; one's true origin is one’s wisdom and

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understanding.”(1)

al-`Arab on which numerous books have been written.

Of course, on some occasions, camels would be paid to the family of the diseased one as blood money. In every tribe, it was up to the elderly people to solve such conflicts. Solutions were offered, but not imposed and the tribes would accept such peaceful solutions due to their involvement in the tiring wars. If the murderer's tribe submitted the murderer to the other tribe who had lost a member, wars could be prevented. However, such submission was not honorable. Therefore, they preferred to punish the wrongdoer. In the conceptualization of the desert dweller, keeping one’s face was the very essence of ethics.

These desert rules and regulations were carried out in the cities of hijaz, i.e. Ta’if,

Mecca and Medina. This is because these citizens resembled the desert dwellers in many ways: they were independent and free, as they obeyed nobody whatsoever. However, these prestige-keeping behaviors which manifested themselves in extremity within the desert were somehow moderated in Mecca due to the respect that they showed towards the Kaaba and because of the trade, contracts which were held in that holy place.(1)

The Holy Qur'an has condemned this sort of revenge-taking and stipulated justice as the basis for the protection of people. It emphasized the fact that Muslims should maintain justice even if this justice might endanger themselves or their parents.

O You who believe! Be maintainers and justify bearers

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of witness of Allah's sake, though it may be against your own selves or your parents or near relatives; if he be rich or poor, Allah in nearer to them both in compassion; therefore do not follow your low desires, lest you deviate; and if you swerve or turn aside, then surely Allah is aware of what you do. (4:135)

Of course, one of the causes for plundering and wars was rivalry among tribes to capture the pastures. At times, bloody conflicts occurred for the attainment of chiefship. For instance, at the time of the death of an elder brother who used to be the chief, the younger brothers desired for that position, and the deceased chief's sons, too, wanted to get their father's position. Under such conditions, fight and struggles for power were inevitable. In such moments, poets also agitated people to be involved for more bloodshed. They chanted tribal prides, criticized other rival tribes and mobilized people to take revenge. Minor issues were the usual causes for such bloody conflicts, it was then up to the two antagonistic tribes to annihilate one another mercilessly.(1) Savagery and avoidance of civilized ways was among the reasons for their plundering. In the opinion of Ibn Khaldun, this nation was savage. Plundering and savagery were embedded in their very morale. For instance, when they needed stones to build a fireplace, they used to destroy buildings; they used to destroy buildings and castles in order to prepare woods required for erecting tents. They got their sustenance by means of swords; they would not be satisfied easily; they showed greed for plunder; they would grab any piece of wealth they could put their hands on.(2)

Plundering was one of their sources of income. When they attacked a tribe, they would confiscate their camels and enslave their wives and children. Still another tribe

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would carry out the same pernicious acts in a later time. When they could not locate an enemy, they would destroy one another. This is made clear through the poem of al-Qa(1)ami, a poet in the reign of the Umayyad rulers, who composed:

“It is our job to attack our neighbors and our enemies, and in those moments when we cannot locate anybody else except for our brother, we will attack him.”(2)

The revenge-based wars between the two tribes of Aws and Khazraj in Yathrib (Medina) were so severe and widespread that nobody dared to leave his home. These wars had destroyed the lives of the Arabs. God mentions in the Holy Qur'an their catastrophic condition and emphasizes the brotherhood among people which was the result of Islam:

Remember the favor of Allah on you when you were enemies, then He united your hearts so by His favor you became brethren; and you were on the brink of a pit of fire, then he saved you from it; thus does Allah make clear to you His communications that you may follow the right way. (3:103)

could have peace of mind and engage in trades or pilgrimage.(1)

If any war occurred during these sacred months, they would be called harb al-Fujjar or a sinful fight. (the Holy Qur'an 9:37)

her husband from other wives.(1)

In accordance with some pieces of evidence, upon the death of one's husband, a woman would become the wife of her eldest son who would draw a piece of cloth on her step-mother's face and consider her item of inheritance and would marry her without any dowry. If he was reluctant to marry his stepmother, he would then ask another man to marry her and make use of her dowry for himself. If he preferred, he could deprive her stepmother of any future marriages so that after her death he could possess her wealth.

Thus, at the time of Arab Ignorance, marrying one's stepmother was not illegal. For this reason, the Holy Qur'an has prohibited it.(2) According to some interpreters, when a man called Abu-Qays ibn al-Aslat died and his eldest son wanted to marry his mother, the following verse was revealed:

It is not lawful for you that you should take women as heritage against their will. (4:22)(3)

In those dark days, polygamy was very prevalent.(4)

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poem:

“For any father who has a daughter and wishes to keep her, there are three kinds of bridegrooms: A house where she can shelter; a husband who can keep her, and a grave to protect her; but the best the grave.”

A story is told that a man, called Abu-hamzah, stayed with the neighbors because his wife had given birth to a girl. His wife playfully said the following piece of poetry for her child:

“What has happened to Abu-hamzah who has left us, living with the neighbors. He is angry because I have not given birth to a son. By God I swear, it is not upon us to decide on the sex of the child. We will receive what we are given.”

This mother's speech is in fact a revolt against the tyrant social conditions prevailing over the Arab community in those days, and depicts the tragedy of women then. The first tribe to establish such a nasty institution was the tribe of Banu-Tamim. It is said that upon their refusal to pay tribunes to al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir, there broke out a severe war in which the women and girls of Tamim were taken prisoners. When Tamim's representatives went to al-Nu`man's court to receive the prisoners, the women were given option to either stay at al-hirah or return home among the Tamimi people. The daughter of Qays ibn `Asim, the chief of the tribe, who was among the prisoners and had married a courtier, chose to stay at the court. Qays became utterly upset and decided to kill his daughters from then on.(1)

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This custom gradually became widespread and it is said that the tribes Qays, Asad, Hudhayl, and Bakr ibn Wa'il committed this crime from then on.(1) Of course, not everybody or tribe performed such nasty crimes. Some tribes and dignified people, such as `Abd al-Muttalib, the Holy Prophet’s grandfather, opposed it.(2) Individuals such as Zayd ibn `Amr ibn Nufayl and Sa`sa`ah ibn Najiyah would take those girls who were supposed to be buried alive due to their parents' poverty and keep them safe.(3) Sometimes, they provided their parents with some camels.(4) However, there is a lot of evidence which indicates that this keeping of such girls was common:

1. Sa`sa`ah ibn Najiyah once told the Holy Prophet that he had saved 280 girls from being buried alive.(5)

2. Qays ibn `Asim killed twelve or thirteen of his daughters after he had taken the decision to do so.(6)

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3. In the first treaty at al-`Aqabah (12 years after the Holy Prophet’s Divine Mission) which the Holy Prophet held with some groups of Yathrib, one paragraph concerned the avoidance of burying daughters alive.(1)

4. After the Conquest of Mecca, one of the items of the treaty with the women of this city stipulated that they should refrain from killing their children.

5. The Holy Qur'an has condemned the practice of burying daughters alive on several occasions:

And do not kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance and yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong. (17:31)

And thus their associates have made fair seeming to most of the polytheists the killing of their children, that they may cause them to perish and obscure for them their religion. (6:137)

They are lost indeed who kill their children foolishly without knowledge, and forbid what Allah has given to them, forging a lie against Allah. (6:140)

And do not slay your children for fear of poverty-We provide for you and for them. (6:151)

And when the female infant buried alive is asked for what sin she was killed. (81:8-9)

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extremely generous, to be loyal to his tribal interests, and to be harsh in taking revenge against those who have wronged him or his relatives or tribe.(1)

others, because the source of doubt and skepticism lies in one's critical thinking. They lacked such sophistications in those days. Of course, at times some bright signs of clear thinking and bright ideas could be observed in their poems, proverbs and tales. However, even these lacked deep thought or analytic aspects. This inability of analysis of phenomena was the root of all sorts of superstitions in which they strongly believed and books of the history of the Arabs contain a lot of them.(1)

might haphazardly be cured, but these treatments were not based on any laws.(1)

The medical treatment of some physicians such as harith ibn Kildah was of this sort.

poem as a masterpiece was a great sign for the poet and his tribe and his poem was hung on the Kaaba's walls.(1) For this reason, they were called al-Mu`allaqat (the suspensions). Arab poems, despite their superficial eloquence, lacked sublime thoughts and richness due to the fact that this nation lacked proper culture and civilization. The contents of this poetry relied heavily on the topics of love, wine, women, epics, and tribal issues and their beauty lay in the superficial glamour of language and literary subtleties.

these two civilizations: Those Arabs who traveled between Iran and Rome for trade purposes observed the manifestations of civilization in these two centers. These influences could be vividly observed in the poems left from the Ignorance Era. Furthermore, many travelers and traders took with them many words and stories from Iran and Rome to the Arabian Peninsula; in this way, some of the ideologies of Iranians and Romans entered Arab culture.(1)

However, it should be noted that these trade transactions between traders of hijaz and the Iranian or Roman merchants did not have any significant influence over the cultural or intellectual advancement of these people. This is because information was hard to pass through mental sieves of these nomads. Most often, what they passed on to others contained a lot of distortions. This is shown in many Arab axioms whose sources are either Solomon's tales or Iranian stories. In general, the Arabs in those days did not receive science from others systematically. The obstacles in the way of such receptions were the following:

(1) Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, and deserts; these barriers created problems for Arab's connection with the outside world.

(2) Huge mental, intellectual and social differences between the Romans and Iranians on one hand and the Arabs on the other hand.

(3) Illiteracy among the Arabs had caused those who came in contact with both Iranians and Romans to memorize and narrate the axioms or the tales in such a

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way as to be comprehensible to ordinary people.

Thus, it could be concluded that the Arab's relationships with the neighboring lands had effects only on their financial, material and literary life.(1)

On the Jews' influences too, it is said that they emigrated to hijaz since the time of Prophet Moses due to the Romans' aggressions after the destruction of Jerusalem.(2) The arrival of Jews in hijaz had a tremendous effect on the social life of the whole region and the stories of the Old Testament and Talmud became known to the Arabs of hijaz.(3)

Of course, the influence of Jewish culture on the people of the Arabian Peninsula cannot be denied and there are documents revealing the fact that the Jews were superior to the Arabs in the intellectual and religious domains. Even after the advent of Islam, many Muslims used to ask them religious questions.(4) Since Judaism, like Christianity, had been severely distorted, the thoughts that the Arabs received from the Jews were extremely disturbed and distorted. Not only were Jewish instructions unhelpful but also they added to the Arabs’ confusion.

a tribal life in the desert, lacking central government to unite them. They were mostly involved in tribal conflicts. For this reason, they were wretched and backward and were not noticed by the people of the world.

The Arabs were so entangled in the narrow sphere of their tribal atmosphere and were so involved in the prejudices and dogmas. They were also so deprived and disorganized that they could never think about affairs occurring outside their immediate surroundings. They could never think of defeating their neighboring powerful states of Iran and Rome; rather, they felt extremely powerless, wretched and inferior towards these two civilizations. An Arab person, namely Qatadah, introduced the Arabs of those days as the most miserable, wretched, backward, misguided, begging and hungry people in the world. He says,

“The Arabs were caught between two lions, from both of whom they feared.”(1)

A piece of evidence for this feeling of inferiority comes from the Holy Prophet's dialogue with the Arabs in Mecca. When he was trying to spread his ideologies among the Arabs, he encountered a group of distinguished Arab individuals. He recited to them some of the verses of the Holy Qur'an which were concerned with native and ethical instructions. All of them were highly moved; they began to admire the verses. However, their chief, al-Muthanna ibn harithah, remarked:

“We are caught between two stretches of water. On

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one side lie the Arab shores; on the other lie Iran and Khosrow rivers. We have pledged to Khosrow not to create any problem and not to protect or shelter any wrongdoer. Perhaps your ideologies are not palatable to the kings. If we do anything wrong here, it would be pardoned, but such mistakes and errors in the Iranian borders are not pardonable by Khosrow, the king of Iran.(1)

On the other hand, since the Banu-Shayban, with the assistance of Banu-`Ujal and Banu-Yashkur, had overcome Khosrow Parviz in the Battle of Dhi-Qar,(1) this victory was a point of honor for them; they looked at it unbelievingly. Whenever they remembered it, they would take pride in it. They did not dare to call it the victory of Arabs over the Persians; they considered it an accident, but not as point of honor. They would recognize it as the pride of three Arab tribes and not just one. Their self-admiration reached such a point that Abu-Tammam, a poet, composed a poem in the honor of Abu-Dulaf al-`Ajali in spite of the fact that the Tamim tribe had one day taken pride in having asked Khosrow to accept hajib's bow as a sign of his pledge for loyalty:

Once Tamim took honor in having pledged his bow and considered this as a point of honor;

However, your swords at the war of Dhi-Qar overthrew the thrones of those who had taken hajib's bow as a pledge.(2)

people of the Arabian Peninsula prior to the advent of Islam as an ignorant people, living in an era of ignorance. There are documents showing that this idiomatic expression was taken from the Holy Qur'an and was used by Muslims to describe this specific era and had taken on a special meaning and flavor.(1) Some contemporary historians estimate the time interval of 150-200 years prior to Prophet Muhammad's prophethood for the existence of the Ignorance Era.(2)

Although the word Jahiliyyah is taken from Jahl (meaning ignorance), the word Jahl here is not taken to be the opposite of science or knowledge; rather, it the opposite of wisdom and logic.

Having lacked knowledge, the people of the Arabian Peninsula were illiterate at that time. They were given the name ignorant not due to their lack of knowledge, but because of their wrong and negative attitudes and illogical thinking and because of their prejudice, selfishness, false pride and vengeful attitude. Islam, however, strongly opposed these negative and destructive inclinations.(3) Perhaps, under such conditions, jahl connotes the meaning of being stupid, which is not based

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on illiteracy.(1)

In the Holy Qur'an, the word ignorance or Jahiliyyah has been used with the meanings we have already referred to. Some of those cases are referred to below:

(1) The unfounded expectations of some superficial believers who wanted the Holy Prophet to do things in accordance with their whimsical wishes were termed Ignorant. (Qur’an 5: 50)

(2) God has referred to the blind tribal prejudices of the idol-worshipping Arab as ignorance. (Qur’an 48: 26)

(3) The Holy Prophet's wives were warned not to appear among community with the ornaments of the women of the earlier times. (Qur’an 33:33)

(4) God refers to the feeble-minded who, after the defeat of Muslims in the Battle of Uhud, had lost their faith and their morale as ignorant. (Qur’an 3:154)

(5) God tells the story of the nation of Prophet Moses who had refused his orders to sacrifice a cow by replying, “Do you make fun of us?” Then, Prophet Moses remarked, “I take shelter in God not to be one of the ignorant ones.” (Qur’an 2: 67)

Depicting the miserable life of the idol-worshipping Arabs, Imam `Ali (a.s) refers to their stupidity.(2)

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Ja`di (Qays ibn `Abdullah), Umayyah ibn Abil-Salt, Qiss ibn Sa`idah al-Iyadi, Abu-Qays Surmah ibn Abi-Anas, Zuhayr ibn Abi-Sulma, Abu-`Amir al-Awsi (`Abd `Amr ibn Sayfi), `Addas (the servant of `Utbah ibn Rabi`ah), Ri'ab al-Shanni, and Bahira the monk.(1) Some of these people were among the distinguished philosophers or poets.

Of course, the secret behind their inclinations towards monotheism lay in their pure and clean human nature and their bright thoughts. The prevalent ill-ominous sects of those days could not satisfy their spiritual needs. These distinguished individuals deeply believed in Almighty God and refrained from following an illogical set of beliefs such as those of idol-worshippers. Christianity and Judaism, too, had lost their vigor and spirituality with the passage of time and could not offer any means of tranquility to those men. For this reason, we observe that some of these God-seekers suffered the pains of journeys to find the truth. They had long discussions with Christian and Jewish scholars.(2) They impatiently looked for the signs of prophethood of the Holy Prophet to which there were numerous references in the Holy Books. Since they could not reach any accomplishment, they accepted the very first principle of monotheism. However, we do not know anything about the way they carried out their

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religious ceremonies.

It should be noted, however, that contrary to the view of some scholars, hanifiyyah did not play any role in guiding the Arab society towards monotheism; rather, as some other historians have stated, they spent their lives in seclusion. They spent their time in deliberation and contemplation, as they were never well-organized. They did not possess any sect with preset commandments or principles. What they were fond of was their seclusion and staying away from the population and refraining from worshipping idols. They were convinced that the prevalent ideology was a corrupt one. They did not give themselves the trouble of propagating their right ideas. For this very reason, they did not have any conflict with people of their own time.(1)

Rabi`ah), Ghassan and some members of the tribe of Quza`ah.(1) Qiss ibn Sa`idah, han¨alah al-Ta’i and Umayyah ibn al-Salt have been enumerated as Christians. Some of these had left their cities and communities and joined monasteries in the deserts.(2)

Christianity in Yemen was Najran, an advanced city. People used to engage in farming, weaving silky cloth, trading hides and weapon making, this city was located at the trade route which extended up to hirah.(1)

Christianity was prevalent in Yemen until the reign of Dhu-Nuwas who came to power and forced people to put aside their religion. When Christians refused to do so, they were put in fire-pits and burned alive.(2) Finally, Dhu-Nuwas was defeated in 525 AD by the intervention of Ethiopia and Christians came to power once again.

Christianity in the Arab markets, discussing the issues of heaven, hell and chastisement. Due to their efforts, some accepted this religion; even Hind, the wife of al-Nu`man X, accepted this religion, building a monastery called Hind's convent. This building was in existence up to the time of al-Tabari. han¨alah al-Ta’i, Qiss ibn Sa`idah and Umayyah ibn al-Salt were from hirah.(1) Al-Nu`man ibn al-Mundhir, the king of hirah, due to the encouragement of `Adi ibn Zayd, accepted Christianity.(2)

Numerous Qur'anic verses deal with Christian ideas and the weak points in their beliefs and actions, especially their assumptions concerning Christ's divinity.(3) This is the best piece of evidence for the existence of this religion in the Arabian Peninsula at the time of the revelation of the Holy Qur'an. The issue of Mubahalah; mutual cursing, which is well-known in the history of Islam, took place with the Najran priests.(4)

However, Christianity had lost its spirituality and authenticity and had been subject to a lot of distortions. Thus, it could not fill the intellectual and religious vacuum which existed in the mind of people in those days nor could it give any peace of mind anymore.

called Medina. There were Jewish communities in Tayma',(1) Fadak(2), and Khaybar.(3) The Jews of Yathrib belonged to three tribes: Banu- Nazir, Banu-Qaynuqa` and Banu-Quray¨ah.(4)

Besides these three Jewish settlements, there were in Medina two other Jewish tribes; Aws and Khazaraj, during the third century AD. Upon the establishment of the Jews in Yathrib, these two tribes came from Yemen to live in this city. They were originally idolaters and due to their association with the Jews, some of them embraced Judaism. It is said that there were some Jews living in Ta’if who had been driven out of Yemen and Yathrib by force and they started their engagement in trade.(5)

Wherever they lived in Arabia, the Jews were well-

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known for farming due to their skills in this activity. In Medina too, they were famous due to their skills in blacksmithing, dyeing, and weaponry.(1) Judaism had some followers among the tribes of himyar, Banu- Kinanah, Banu-harith ibn Ka`b, Kindah,(2) Ghassan and Judham.(3)

them on three occasions.(1) This sect is now disintegrating and only a few of them live in Khuzestan(2) and Iraq.(3)

that Manichaeism is a combination of Christianity and Zoroastrianism.(1)

A group of historians have confirmed that heresy or Manichean heresy was prevalent among the people of Quraysh who had received it from the people of hirah.(2), Ubay ibn Abi-Khalaf, Abu-`Azzah, al-Nazr ibn harith, Nubayh and Munabbih, sons of al-hajjaj ibn Amir al-Sahmi, al-`As ibn Wa’il, and al-Walid ibn al-Mughirah al-Makhzumi. See al-Muhabbar, pp. 161.

However, the speeches and sessions held by these individuals carry no single indication of this point. Rather, documents prove that they were idol-worshippers. In his discussions on heresy, `Abd al-husayn Zarrinkub remarks that the word zandaqah included Materialists as well. This latter group refrained from attributing the events of this world to a Creator. The zanadiqah of Quraysh, among whom were Abu-Sufyan, Ibn Abi-Mu`i(3)

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This clarifies the fact that by heresy, we mean dualism, because hirah used to be a protégé and neighbor of Iran and Iranian sects which were based on dualism.

idolaters in general.(1)

Prohibiting and condemning the worshipping of celestial bodies, the Holy Qur'an considers this limited group of celestial bodies creations of God that are dominated by His power and worshipping Him. Thus, they could be regarded as guides for man and directors towards God, the All-great. This is because these heavenly bodies are just signs for His power:

And He has made subservient for you the night, the day, the sun, and the moon and the stars are made subservient by His commandment; most surely, there are signs in this for a people who ponder. (16:12)

And among His signs are the night and the day and the sun and the moon; do not make obeisance to the sun nor to the moon; and make obeisance to Allah who created them, if Him it is that you serve. (41:37)

And that He is the Lord of the Sirius. (53:49)

These sacred verses depict the fact that at the time of the Holy Prophet, the worshipping of these celestial bodies was a common practice.

Banu-Malih, a branch of the Khuza`ah tribe, used to worship Jinn.(1) It is said that the first people who started worshipping jinn were a group of Yemenis; then it was the Banu-hanifah tribe; then it was spread among the Arabs.(2) In the words of interpreters, some people believed that God has married the Jinn and the angels are the offspring of such a marriage.(3) In the Holy Qur'an, God has condemned the worshipping of Jinn and angels and the wrong assumptions about them:

And they made the jinn associates with Allah, while He created them, and they falsely attributed to Him, and highly exalted is He above what they ascribe to Him. (6:100)

And on the day when He will gather them all together, and then He will say to the angels: Did these worship you? They shall say: Glory be to Thee! Thou art our Guardian, not they; nay! The worshippers become abashed. (34:41)

It also becomes clear through the answers offered by the angels that they are not satisfied with people who worship them. (34:41) It is evident that this question is not asking for any information; neither does it unveil any ambiguity. This is because God is All-knowing. God intends that the angels reveal the truth so that their worshippers become abased. However, the jinn were content in this respect.

Thus, the worshipping of these two sets of invisible creatures on the part of some worshippers was not unlike

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the dualism-bided sect, because the worshipper considered the jinn as the source of light, benevolence and abundance. When entering a valley at night, some Arabs used to say, “I ask the protection of the chief of the ignorant ones in order to be safe against those ignorant ones who live in this land.”(1) By chanting such slogans, they believed the jinn would protect them for the truth of this claim comes from the Holy Qur'an:

And persons from among men used to seek refuge with persons from among jinn, so they increased them in wrongdoing. (72:6)

one of Prophet Abraham’s traditions.(1) If for any reason, there occurred a fight among them; they called it a sinful and obnoxious war.(2) Thus, monotheism had a long history with the Arabs of that region and their idolatry entered there only later and drove them astray from monotheism.

the Kaaba: Asaf and Na’ilah.(1) These two were also worshipped upon his recommendation. In this way, he laid the foundation of idolatry. The Holy Prophet is reported to have said:

`Amr ibn Luhayy was the one who transformed Isma`il's religion and laid the foundation of idolatry. I have seen him in the fire of Hell.(2)

Second: When Isma`il's children grew in numbers in Mecca, they decided to go to different cities and locations to continue with their life. Due to their extreme respect and love for Mecca, everybody used to take away a piece of stone and put it on the ground wherever they went and started going around it like the ceremony around the Kaaba. Little by little, the motive behind this practice was forgotten and each stone transformed into an idol. People then would worship any stone they liked. In this way, they completely forgot their precious customs and religion: they transformed the religion of Prophet Abraham and Prophet Isma`il, accepting idolatry.(3)

Of course, these two factors were the basic reasons for the spread of idolatry. Naturally, there were other factors

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in this process, such as ignorance, human fondness of sensation (according to which man prefers God to be tangible), zeal for being the chief or among the prominent figures of the tribe who preferred people to be stuck in ignorance so that they could carry on with their domination, and imitating their ancestors that caused the spread of idolatry in different forms.(1) The number of idols gradually increased to such an extent that there was an idol in every home. On their trips, they used to caress it with their hands and ask for blessing.(2) At the time of the conquest of Mecca, there were three hundred and sixty idols in this city.(3)

reproduction. However, in different verses, God has reprimanded them for these attitudes:

And he made the angels - those who are the servants of the Beneficent God - female divinities.

What! Did they witness their creation? Their evidence shall be written down and they shall be questioned. (43:19)

Most surely, they who do not believe in the hereafter name the angels with female names. (53:27)

And they say: The Beneficent God has taken to Himself a son. Glory be to Him. Nay! They are honored servants. (21:16)

And they made the Jinn Associates with Allah, while He created them, and they falsely attributed to Him sons and daughters without knowledge; glory be to Him, and Highly exalted is He above what they ascribe to Him. And that He - exalted be the majesty of our Lord - has not taken a consort, or a son. (6:100-101)

In different verses, God has reprimanded the disbelievers for their ascribing to God the existence of girls, which were considered to be evil, while ascribing boys to themselves:

Or has He daughters while you have sons. (52:39)

Then ask them whether your Lord has daughters and they have sons. Or did we create the angels females while they were witnesses. (37:149-150)

Have you then considered Lat, `Uzza, and Manat the third, the last? What! For you the males. And for Him the females! This indeed is an unjust division! They are naught but names which you have named, you and your fathers; Allah has not sent for them any authority. They follow naught but conjecture and the

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low desires which their souls incline to; and certainly, the guidance has come to them from their Lord. (37:149-150)

What! Has He taken daughters to Himself of what He himself creates and chosen you to have sons? (43:16)

And they assert a relationship between Him and the jinn; and certainly, the jinn do know that they shall surely be brought up. Glory be to Allah for freedom from what they describe. (37:158-159)

In accordance with an interpretation, by the relation of God to Jinn was meant to be their assumption of God's relation with Jinn, the consequence of which was the angels.(1)

2. They used to think of the idols as petty Gods, intermediate between themselves and Allah. Worshipping these petty Gods was supposed to satisfy Him. This assumption was irrational since worship belongs to Allah alone.

Despite the fact that these small gods were not supposed to be the creators of the world, their worshippers assumed some divine roles for them, considering them influential on man's fate and future. They looked for these Gods' assistance to solve their worldly problems. However, in Islam, Allah is considered to be both the Creator of the universe and its Manager. (17:111) The idols are lifeless entities, lacking perception. The Holy Qur'an depicts their baseless assumptions in the following manner:

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And they serve beside Allah what can neither harm them nor profit them, and they say: These are our intercessors with Allah. Say: Do you presume to inform Allah of what He knows not in the heavens and the earth? Glory be to Him, and supremely exalted is He above what they set up with Him. (10:18)

Now, surely, sincere obedience is due to Allah alone and as for those who take guardians besides Him, saying, We do not serve them save that they may make us nearer to Allah, Surely Allah will judge between them in that about which they differ; Surely Allah does not guide him aright who is a liar, ungrateful. (39:3)

And they have taken Gods besides Allah, that they should be to them a source of strength. (19:81)

And they have taken Gods besides Allah that they may be helped. (36:74)

The Holy Qur'an calls the idolaters liars and ungrateful ones because they considered the idols as helpers to Allah in the management of worldly affairs.

on the spot.(1) Their prayers beside the Kaaba were nothing more than whistling and hand-clapping. During hajj time and at the time of uttering the expression at Thy service, they used to call the names of their idols besides Allah's name.(2) In this way, they mingled the hajj of Prophet Abraham, which is one of the most sublime manifestations of monotheism, with polytheism. The two tribes, Aws and Khazraj, instead of head-shaving at the land of Mina, carried out this ceremony on their way back to Medina at the foot of Manat (an idol), which was at the seashore(3) on the route between Mecca and Yathrib.(4)

The disbelievers, both men and women, used to circumambulate the Kaaba naked;(5) it is apparent what a horrible scene could be seen around the Kaaba!

People of Quraysh used to put musk and ambergris on their idols next to the Kaaba and bow to them; they used to gather around them uttering at Thy service.(6) Although they believed in the reverence of those four sacred months not to be involved in wars, they used to change the names of the month and postpone the sacred months

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so that they could be involved in wars.(1)

unite all the wandering Arabs into a nation prior to his demise. He made every Muslim obedient to one leader. Without doubt, Prophet Muhammad had some tangible results that none of the previous religions, such as Judaism and Christianity, could have achieved. For this, the Arab nation owes him a lot. If we desire to evaluate people with their feats and deeds, definitely Muhammad is the greatest man in the history of mankind. We consider the religion which he brought for mankind as a great Divine asset.”(1)

Thomas Carlyle, an English author, writes:

“Through Islam, God led the Arabs from darkness into light. Islam enlivened the dead and silenced Arabs. From the very beginning of man's life, Arabs were nothing but wandering desert-dwelling groups of people. They had nothing to present to the world. Through the prophethood of a great Prophet, God changed the unknown Arab people into a well-known nation, a wandering nation into a settled one, a miserable nation into a prosperous one, a weak nation into a powerful one, and a spark into a great fire. The Prophet's rays spread everywhere; his light scattered at every corner of the earth, the south, the east and the west so much so that only one century after its advent, the Islamic government could establish its power from India to Andalusia.”(2)

Will Durant writes:

“In those days, nobody could dream and believe that wandering desert-dwelling people could, after only one century, capture half of the Roman territories in Asia, the whole territory of Iran and Egypt and most

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of the northern territories of Africa, and be on its way towards Spain. This historic event which started from Arabia and through which the Arabs could capture half of the Mediterranean territories and could establish Islam is no doubt the strangest historical event in the Middle Ages.”(1)

continued until the reign of Hashim, the Holy Prophet's great grandfather, who entered into a treaty with the Roman Empire, according to which the Meccan traders could freely enter this country.(1)

He had a contract with the tribes on the way to Damascus to protect the Meccan merchants on their journey.(2) In return, he had to carry their merchandise to Damascus free of charge.(3) His brothers, `Abd Shams, Nawfal, and al-Muttalib, had similar contracts with the governor of Ethiopia and the kings of Iran(4) and Yemen.(5)

Upon achieving the security of routes, Hashim established the trade route between Yemen and Damascus(6) passing through Mecca which was between these two trade-centers.(7) In this way, the trade of Quraysh outside the country was established.(8) Since then, Meccan merchants, besides partaking in seasonal markets, such as `Uka¨, Dhu’l-Majaz, and al-Majannah, made their journey to Yemen and Ethiopia in winter and to Damascus and Gaza in summer. In this way, they could buy silky cloths, hides and other merchandise which had come from India

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or China into Yemen and take them to Mecca through the Arabian lands parallel to the Red Sea(1) to take them again to Gaza, Jerusalem, Damascus and the ports on the Mediterranean. They could then buy wheat, oil, olives, wood and other produce from Damascus. They could also enter Ethiopia, through the Red Sea and Jeddah Port, which is located eight hundred kilometers away from Mecca. In this way, they could take their local merchandise from one place to another.(2)

The establishment of such a merchant route changed the city of Mecca into a lucrative center for trade and had a tremendous effect on the life of its people. God mentions this route as a means for prosperity for the people of Quraysh:

For the protection of the Quraysh—their protection during their trading caravans in the winter and the summer; so, let them serve the Lord to this house, Who feeds them against hunger and gives them security against fear. (106:1-4)

the hajj ceremonies.(1) These two factors played major roles in the trade prosperity of the city.

Of course, the sanctity of Mecca which brought forth the required security for the trade transactions was of utmost importance for the trade prosperity of Mecca. This fact is mentioned by Allah:

And they say: If we follow the guidance with you, we shall be carried off from our country. What! Have We not settled them in a safe, sacred territory to which fruits of every kind shall be drawn-sustenance from Us? But most of them do not know. (38:57)

Upon the settlement of his wife and child beside the Kaaba, Prophet Abraham asked his God for such an asset:

O Our Lord! Surely, I have settled a part of my offspring in a valley unproductive of fruit near Thy Sacred House, our Lord! That they may keep up prayer; therefore make the hearts of some people yearn towards them and provide them either fruits; haply they may be grateful. (14:37)

My Lord, make it a secure town and provide its people with fruits, such of them as believe in Allah and the last day. (2:126)

these traders in one caravan was more than thirty thousand Dinars.(1) The Quraysh nobles had a lot of gardens.(2) in the summer quarters of Ta’if, which, in good weather, was called a part of Damascus.(3) Al-`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib had a vineyard in Ta’if the produce of which was carried to Mecca to be made wine.(4) He was one of the great usurers of Mecca.(5) Upon his death, his body was enshrouded in two pieces of Yemeni cloth which cost the value of five thousand grams of gold.(6) It is said his daughter, Hind, manumitted forty slaves in one day.(7) Al-Walid ibn Mughirah, the elder chief of the Banu-Makhzum, had a great wealth and a great number of children; he was quite famous(8) and later reprimanded by the Holy Qur'an because of his false pride and ambition.(9)

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The wealth of `Abdullah ibn Jad`an Tamimi and his luxurious parties were considered fabulous.(1) Poets composed eulogies to receive prizes.(2) A poet likened him to Caesar.(3) It is said that at one tribal war, he gave a thousand camels to a thousand warriors(4) and armed a hundred warriors at his cost.(5) He was the custodian and seller of female slaves.(6) He used to drink out of golden ware.(7) Upon the seizure of Mecca and when he was on the way to the Battle of hunayn, the Holy Prophets borrowed one hundred sets of shields and the required ammunitions from Safwan ibn Umayyah, one of the infidels of Mecca.(8)

(2) Quraysh, who had taken away the position of the Kaaba’s custodianship from Quza`ah(9) since the time of Qusayy, the fourth generation away from the Holy Prophet, had distributed among the chiefs of the different

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Quraysh clans the different responsibilities related to the Kaaba, such as watering the pilgrims, guest-affairs, curtain-management and services of the Kaaba; they had in this way secured a religious position for itself. Besides, the Quraysh had distributed among the heads of its different branches the municipal affairs, such as the control of the reception of blood-money and the like.(1)

allah (the neighbors of Allah) and sukkan haram allah (Inhabitants of Allah’s Precinct).(1) In this way, they could strengthen their religious basis and due to their power, they showed inclination towards corruption and monopoly.(2) This sense of power caused them to impose some new regulations over other tribes.

Quraysh had the special privilege of marrying any daughter from other tribes with the condition that they should accept the religious innovations that they had fabricated concerning the special hajj ceremonies.(3) They received taxes from the pilgrims who would enter Mecca,(4) and called such tributes as special privileges of Quraysh.(5) They had monopolized the management of the hajj ceremonies and forced the pilgrims to follow their regulations. This was so severe that the pilgrims' movement from Mina or participation in stone-throwing was authorized by special order of Quraysh.(6) Quraysh even forced non-Meccan pilgrims to either buy their costumes or carry out the ceremonies naked. These pilgrims had to throw away their costumes if they refused to buy them from the Quraysh.(7) This would force them to

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buy their costumes from the Quraysh, anyhow.(1) In the ninth year of Hegira, in which the Holy Prophet sent Imam `Ali to Mecca to take part in the ceremony of acquaintance, one of the items of `Ali's resolution was the prohibition of performing hajj naked.(2)

Recognition of the Quraysh's power and influence is necessary in order to find out the problems that the Holy Prophet had to face and what powerful enemy he had to confront. With few sources of power that the Holy Prophet had at his disposal, he had to struggle against a powerful opponent.

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The Arab tribes are divided into Qahtani and `Adnani groups. Quraysh, due to its relation with `Adnan (the Holy Prophet's twentieth ancestor) belongs to `Adnan. All clans whose lineage leads to al-Nazr ibn Kinanah are called qurayshi, since Quraysh was their nickname.(1) The tribe of Quraysh is of different branches,(2) such as Banu-Makhzum, Banu-Zuhrah, Banu-Umayyah, Banu-Sahm, Banu-Asad and Banu-Hashim(3) to which the Holy Prophet belongs.

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`Abd al-Muttalib believed in a number of traditions which were approved of in Islam; among them we may refer to the prohibition of drinking wine, the prohibition of adultery, the punishment of adulterers; the cutting of the thief's hand, the banishment of ill-named Meccan women, the prohibition of burying daughters alive, the prohibition of marriage with intimates, the prohibition of being naked in circumambulating the Kaaba, carrying out one's vows and obligations, the observance of the sacred months, and finally engaging in mutual cursing (mubahalah).(1) It is narrated that `Abd al-Muttalib was the evidence of God and Abu-Talib God's Representative.(2)

never let me be mingled with the corruptions of the Ignorance Era.”(1)

We know that no dirt is worse than atheism or disbelief. If ever there were an atheist or disbeliever among the progeny or progenitors of anybody, he would not be considered clean. The Twelver Imamiyyah scholars believe that Abu-Talib and Aminah bint (daughter of) Wahab—the Holy Prophet’s mother—were monotheists.(2) In this regard, Imam `Ali (a.s) has stated:

“I swear to God that my father and ancestors, `Abd al-Muttalib, Hashim and `Abd Manaf, did not believe in any form of idolatory. They were true followers of Prophet Abraham’s religion and used to perform prayers to God at the Kaaba.”(3)

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Prophet Muhammad (s) was born in Mecca.(1) This event, with regards to some pieces of evidence such as the emigration (Hegira) in 622 AD and the Holy Prophet’s demise in 632 AD at the age of 60-63 years must have occurred in the years 569-570 AD.(2)

When Prophet Muhammad (s) became two years old,(1) his father, `Abdullah, on his mercantile journey from Damascus, passed away in Yathrib, where he was buried.(2) Referring to the orphanage of the Holy Prophet, the Holy Qur'an states:

Did He not find you an orphan and give you shelter; and find you lost (i.e. unrecognized by men) and guide them to you; and find you in want and make you to be free from want? (93:6-8)

Aminah's infant was breast-fed by his mother for the first days of his birth;(3) he was then breastfed by Thuwaybah, a fem ale servant freed by Abu-Lahab.(4) According to Arab customs,(5) he was submitted to a nurse, named halimah al-Sa`diyyah, from the tribe of Banu-Sa`d ibn Bakr who used to live in the desert.(6) halimah

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breastfed the Holy Prophet(1) for two years, cared for him for five years and finally submitted him to his family.(2)

Most probably, they put the keeping of the Holy Prophet in the hands of a desert-dwelling nurse because his wanted him to nourish in the clean air of the desert and to stay away from the disease of cholera epidemic in Mecca.(3) Another reason was that they wanted him to learn the eloquent Arabic from the nomadic tribes. Some historians have referred to this factor.(4) Attesting this fact, the Holy Prophet is reported to have said,

“I am more eloquent than all of you because I am both a Qurayshite and have been breastfed among the tribe of Banu-Sa`d ibn Bakr.”(5) Concerning the adoption of halimah as the special nurse for Muhammad (s), there are some accounts in

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historical documents to the effect that since Muhammad (s) was an orphan, nobody would accept to take care of him. This was because a nurse would receive some money from the child's parents and such a means was not available to Muhammad (s). halimah had to accept him since there was no other option for her to be busy.(1) Lack of acceptance of Muhammad (s) on the part of nurses due to his orphanage does not seem accurate for the following reasons:

As we have already said, `Abdullah passed away several months after Muhammad's birth; thus, at that time, he was not yet an orphan.

Due to `Abd al-Muttalib's privileges in Mecca and because of his high socio-economic status, nurses and caretakers would not refrain from taking care of him; rather, they were extremely zealous to take care of such a family.

This topic has not been discussed in many historical documents.(2)

one month in Yathrib and on her way back to Mecca, she passed away at a house called Abwa, where she was buried. At that time, Muhammad (s) was six years old.(1) Umm-Ayman took him to Mecca with the caravan and submitted him to `Abd al-Muttalib(2) who then resumed Muhammad's guardianship and took good care of him as long as he was alive. He used to say, “Muhammad will definitely have a high status.”(3)

children.(1)

Abu-Talib's wife, Fatimah bint Asad, had a significant role in the education of Muhammad (s). She did her best in this regard. She loved him like a genuine mother and preferred him to her own children. Never did Muhammad (s) forget her care; he always referred to her as his genuine and natural mother.(2)

following points should be taken into consideration concerning this event:

(1) This event is referred to in some historical records briefly; while in others, it is dealt with in more details. The essence of the event is not doubtful, because in several verses of the Holy Qur'an, the predictions of previous Prophets about Prophet Muhammad have been stated.(1)

(2) The signs that the religious scholars had about Muhammad (s) were of two kinds: indicative of his personal life and body features (for instance, his orphanage, facial features and his name) and others related to his family background (such as his being an Arab and his marriage).One of the most distinguished signs on his body was a speckle (birthmark) between his shoulders, which is called the Prophet's speckle or the Prophet’s seal.(2)

(3) Bahira's prediction was only new to the people of the caravan because Abu-Talib and Muhammad's other

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close relatives had already been aware of his bright future.(1)

aspects of Judaism and Christianity so well that he could have presented it as a complete religion at the age of forty?

(5) Had Muhammad (s) learnt anything from the monk, the aggressive and excuse-seeking Quraysh would have used it against him. However, there is no sign of this aggression against him in the history of Islam. Quoting Quraysh's accusations and answering them, the Qur'an does not make any reference to such an event.

(6) If such a thing were correct, how come those people on the caravan did not refer to it?

p(7) If such an account were correct, why did Christian natives of Damascus not claim at that time that they had been Muhammad's instructors?

(8) If this claim were correct, Islamic teachings would be the same as those of the Torah and the Gospel. However, these teachings are not only contradictory, but also most of the Jewish and Christian ideas and teachings of the Torah and the Gospel have been rejected by the Holy Qur'an.(1) Once, `Umar ibn al-Kha(2)ab asked the Holy Prophet to let him write down the narrations which he had heard from the Jews. The Holy Prophet remarked,

“Are you confused in your own religion like the Jews and the Christians? I have brought you this holy and luminous religion. If Moses were alive, he would follow my way now.”(3)

In Medina, where a great number of Jews used to live,

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Muhammad (s) used to show his disagreements in many religious plans and orders with the Jews(1) so much so that they used to say “This man wants to disagree with us in all of our programs.”(2)

Constan Virgil Giorgio, a Christian who desired to spread lies against Islam, has narrated the event with so many distortions and illogical details that his account is not only contrary to any standard of thinking but also in disharmony with the claims of the Christians themselves. He writes:

“Ibn Husham, an Arab narrator, writes: Contrary to people's beliefs, Bahira was not Christian; he was Manichean, a follower of a man called Mani who claimed prophethood at the time of the Sasanids. Bahram I, the Sasanid King, ordered him to be crucified across the entrance of Gondi Shapur in Khuzestan in 276 AD. Mani and his followers, including Bahira, believed that God is not in the monopoly of a specific nation; rather, he belonged to men all over the world. This is because all the world nations belong to Him and God will send a prophet to a nation to speak with the people in their own language whenever He wishes so.”(3)

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By the name Ibn Husham, the writer most probably refers to `Abd al-Malik ibn Husham (213 AH), the author of the famous book al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, one of the significant documents of the history of Islam. However, there is neither any mention of the word Manichean relating to this issue in Ibn Husham's book nor in any older Islamic sources. This man is introduced as either Christian or even rarely Jew. Now the question is: How did Giorgio get this information?

Furthermore, Manichaeism did not have any follower in Damascus; the center for Manichaeism was Iran. In the word of a scholar, Manichaeism is ascribed to Bahira for purpose of establishing that Islam has imitated the uniqueness of God and the universalism of Islam from Manichaeism. During the last centuries, Islam has been confronted with similar issues. It is not important for the accusers to ascribe the most advanced form of thoughts to the weakened religions because these old religions do not have genuine followers to be proud of. Islam stands so high that the world of Christianity even centuries after the Crusade campaigns, still worries about the expansion of Islam and tries helplessly to de-emphasize Islam's glories.(1)

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mountain to have a meeting. Having heard the man's call for justice, Zubayr ibn `Abd al-Muttalib encouraged the leaders of Banu-Hashim, i.e. `Abd al-Muttalib, Banu-Zuhrah, Banu-Tamim and Banu-harith (who were among the prominent clans of Quraysh) to gather at the home of `Abdullah ibn Jad`an al-Taymi. They convened a treaty according to which nobody, either weak or poor, was to be the subject of any act of injustice. Then they went to the home of al-`As and received the money for the Zubaydi man.(1) At that time, Muhammad (s) was twenty years old.(2)

The participation of Muhammad (s) in this treaty was a brave act. It is interpreted now as a symbolic act of protection of human rights in that backward and ignorant society. His brave and just act is appreciated when we notice that the youngsters of his age in those days were participating in pleasure-seeking parties and did not have any concept of protecting the oppressed or carrying out justice. After prophethood, he used to remember his participation in that treaty with a lot of joy. He said:

“I took part in a treaty at the home of `Abdullah ibn Jad`an which made me even more delighted than receiving red-haired camels. If at this era of Islam I am invited to such a pact, I will joyfully accept it.”(3)

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Since this pact was superior to any other treaty, it had the name of hilf al-Fuzul.(1) This pact was a stronghold for the homeless and the miserable. Later on, it was repeatedly used to protect the oppressed ones in Mecca against tyrants and oppressors.(2)

five years old,(1) Abu-Talib said to him, “I have become broke and empty-handed. Now a caravan is on its way to Damascus. I wish you to go to Khadijah and ask for a job.”

At this time, Khadijah had become aware of Muhammad's traits of honesty and good manners. She sent an errand to him saying, “If you accept the supervision of my caravan, I will pay you more than others and I would send my special servant, Maysarah, to help you.” Muhammad (s) accepted this offer(2) and accompanied the caravan to Damascus accompanied by Maysarah.(3) He could make more money than others.(4)

Maysarah observed such feats of magnanimity in Muhammad (s) that he was surprised. During this trip, Nustur the monk predicted his prophethood. He observed that Muhammad (s) had some arguments with a man over trade. That man said, “You should swear to Lat and `Uzza so that I could accept your statement.” Muhammad (s) replied, “I have never sworn to Lat and `Uzza in my whole life.”(5) On his return to Mecca, Maysarah told Khadijah what he had seen in Muhammad (s).(6)

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turned them down.(1)

On the other hand, Khadijah was a relative of Muhammad (s) and both of them had the common ancestor of Qusay. She had recognized the bright future for Muhammad (s),(2) and was pleased to accept him as her spouse.(3) She made an offer of marriage and he consulted with his uncles who accepted this marriage, which took place in a family gathering.(4) It is said that at that time, Khadijah was forty years old and Muhammad (s) was twenty-five.(5) She was his first wife.(6)

reliable that they decided to use his good judgment in the installation of the Black Stone.(1) He resolved their problem through high prudence and discretion. Due to the flood which descended from the mountains of Mecca, the walls of the Kaaba had broken on several sides. This event took place when he was thirty-five years old. Up to that day, the Kaaba had no ceiling and its walls were low. For this reason, its internal treasures were unprotected. People of Quraysh decided to build a roof; however, they were not able to carry out their plan. After the event of the flood, the leaders of the Meccan tribes decided to destroy the building to reconstruct it with a roof over it. At the time of the reconstruction, there were disagreements among the tribes over the location of the Black Stone. Once again, competitions and resorting to tribal pride surfaced. Each tribe desperately tried to have the honor of installing the stone. Some tribes, by thrusting their hands into a vessel full of blood, vowed not to let any other tribe have the honor of the installation.

Finally, upon the suggestion made by the eldest man of Quraysh, they decided to follow the opinion of the first person who would enter the Mosque from the entrance

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called Bab al-Safa. Suddenly, Muhammad (s) entered the mosque from that direction. Everybody declared that Muhammad (s) was trustworthy and they would listen to his judgment. A piece of cloth was brought in by the order of the trustworthy man of Quraysh i.e. Muhammad (s). He spread the piece of cloth, wrapped the stone inside it and asked the Qurayshi leaders to take each corner of it and collectively carry it to the wall. As soon as the stone was taken to the wall, Muhammad (s) installed it in its original location.(1) With his delicate discretion and prudence, he solved their problem stopping a potentially huge amount of bloodshed.

confirmed and followed him.(1) At that time, `Ali (a.s) was six years old and his personality was in the making.(2) Muhammad (s) wanted to compensate for the hardships Abu-Talib and his wife, Fatimah bint Asad, had gone through when he was young by adopting one of his children, namely `Ali. He saw `Ali as the most competent of Abu-Talib's children. This is evident by Muhammad's remark after he had adopted `Ali, “I have selected the one who has been selected by God to help me.”(3) Muhammad (s) showed a lot of respect and affection to `Ali (a.s) and did everything possible to educate him well. Fazl ibn `Abbas, one of `Ali's cousins, says:

I asked my father, “Which one of his children did the Prophet love the most?” He replied, “`Ali ibn Abi-Talib.” I said, “I have asked you of the Prophet's sons.” He replied, “The Prophet loves `Ali more than any of his sons and showed affection towards him more than others. The Prophet would never let go of `Ali except for those days when he attended Khadijah's caravan. We have never seen a father more affectionate towards his son than the Prophet and we have never seen a son more obedient to his father than `Ali to the Prophet.”(4)

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After his prophethood, Muhammad (s) had so much emphasis over `Ali's education in the Islamic issues that if he received a Divine revelation at night, he would teach it to `Ali before dawn. If he received Divine revelation during the day, he would inform `Ali of it before sunset.(1) Once, `Ali (a.s) was asked, “How come you learned more narrations from the Prophet than his other followers?” He answered, “Whenever I asked the Prophet anything, he would answer; and whenever I was silent, he used to start telling me a narration.”(2)

When `Ali (a.s) was the caliph, he referred to his religious education with the following remarks:

“You, followers of the Prophet, are well aware of my close relationship with him; and you know that when I was a small boy, he used to embrace me close to his breast and let me sleep in his bed in such a way that I could touch his body and feel his smell; he even used to put food into my mouth. I used to follow the Prophet like a child going after his mother. He used to teach me one of his ethical virtues each day and ordered me to adopt that virtue. Each year, he used to pray God at the hara' Mountain; I was the only person to be with him. When he received the Divine revelation, I could vividly hear Satan's voice. I asked the Prophet what that noise was. He answered that it was Satan's noise and that it had a terrible sensation for not being obedient on the earth. He says that I could hear what he heard and see what he saw; the difference was that he was the Prophet and I was not; I was his vizier and representative for doing good on

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the earth.”(1)

This discourse might just refer to the Prophet's prayer at hara’ after his prophethood, but since most of the Prophet's prayers were done at hara’ prior to his prophethood, we can be sure that this issue is related to the era prior to his prophethood and Satan's noise of discomfort is related to the descent of the first revelations. Anyway, `Ali's spirit and continuous education from the Prophet prepared him to see and hear things which were not possible for ordinary people to hear or see. These were due to his sensitive mind, piercing eyes, sensitive ears and specific insight.

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attention the less he could observe anything.(1)

Approaching his prophethood, Muhammad (s) had reached the highest point in rational thinking; he could not tolerate corrupted surroundings anymore and preferred seclusion.(2)

From the time he was thirty-seven years old, he was dominated by some specific spiritual conditions. He felt there was a window open to him from the unknown world. Whatever he had heard from Bahira, Nustur and others was taking place, because he was observing a new light and exposed to some secrets: he repeatedly received some messages from Gabriel, but he could not identify the sender.(3) For a time during his sleep, he was addressed as the Prophet. Once, in the desert surrounding Mecca, he heard someone calling him Messenger of Allah. He asked, “Who are you?” The answer was, “I am Gabriel; God has sent me to tell you that you are His Messenger.” When he told his wife of the content of the message, she became delighted, saying, “I hope it is true.”(4)

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During this time, Muhammad (s) used to resort to hara’ Mount to pray God(1) in seclusion.(2) It was a common practice among the Qurayshi monotheists to stay at hara’ and worship God.(3) The first person to carry out such a practice was `Abd al-Muttalib, the Holy Prophet's grandfather, who used to go to hara’ during the months of Ramazan. He used to feed the needy in this month.(4)

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. Read in name of your Lord who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is most honorable, who taught to write with the pen, taught man what he knew not. (96:1-5)(1)

In two places of the Holy Qur’an, God has referred to the meeting of Muhammad (s) with Gabriel.

I swear by the star when it goes down; Your companion (i.e. Muhammad) does not err, nor does he go astray; nor does he speak out of desire. It is naught but revelation that is revealed; the Lord of Mighty Powers has taught him, the Lord of strength; so he attained completion, and he (i.e. the angel) is in the highest part of the horizon. Then he drew near (to Muhammad) then he bowed so he was the measure of two bows or closer still. And He revealed to His servant what he revealed. The heart (of Muhammad) was not untrue, making him see what he saw. (53:1-12)(2)

I swear by the stars, that run their course and hide themselves, and the night when it departs, And the morning when it brightens, Most surely it is the Word of an honored messenger, The possessor of strength, having an honorable place with the Lord of the Dominion, One to abide, and faithful in trust. And

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Your companion (Muhammad) has not gone mad. And of a truth, he saw himself on the clear horizon. Nor of the unseen has he tenacious concealed. Nor is it the word of the cursed Shaitan, Wither then will you go? (81:15-25)

God that He would never humiliate you since you have been kind to everybody; you have been helping the needy and hosting the guests.” Then, Khadijah accompanied him to her cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. He was a blind elderly man who had converted to Christianity and translated the Gospel into Hebrew. Khadijah said, “It is prophethood, cousin! Listen to what he will tell you.” Waraqah asked Muhammad (s), “What do you see, my nephew?” The Prophet told him what had happened. Waraqah then said, “This is the same angel who had revealed to Moses. I wish I were young now. I wish I would be alive when your people would expel you.”(1)

have been very difficult for Muhammad (s) who was mentally mature and advanced at that age.

(3) What is meant by the angel's persistence in putting pressure on the Prophet? This is absurd when we realize that learning is a mental act; therefore, bodily pressure would not have any effect on it. If we assume that the Prophet could have suddenly become capable of reading through God's Power, God's determination would have sufficed and these arrangements would have looked absurd. Even if we assumed that the source of this bodily pressure had been due to Muhammad's relationship to the unknown world and the source of creation (This is because he, with all his grandeur, was earthly and had an earthly and mundane origin), this assumption would be hard to justify. This is because, according to the Holy Qur’an, the revelation of God’s word to the Prophets happens in the following ways:

pa) Direct connection and the receipt of the Divine Revelation without any intermediary,

b) Through hearing the voice without observing the owner of the voice, and

c) Through Gabriel or the Angel of Revelation.(1)

The Holy Prophet suffered a lot of pressures only when he was receiving the revelations; in accordance with some narrations, he suffered such tremendous amount of pressures that he would lose the color of his face and perspire a great deal so much so that the drops of sweat would fall from his complexion.(2) However, if he received

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the revelations indirectly through the angel, he would not undergo any drastic bodily changes. This state is reported by Imam al-Sadiq (s) who said,

Whenever the revelation came through Gabriel; he said so and so; however, if he received the revelation directly, he would show the pressures he was under and sometimes he would become unconscious.(1)

Meeting with Gabriel did not produce any special emotional reaction in the Holy Prophet and Gabriel would never enter his presence without permission. He would sit in front of him quite politely.(2)

Historians unanimously contend that since the first verses of the Holy Qur’an were revealed in the hara’ cave by Gabriel, the Holy Prophet did not suffer any unusual pressure. Of course, this does not negate the worry which the Holy Prophet had vis-à-vis the idolaters and their animosities.

(4) Taking into consideration the fact that the Holy Prophet received the revelations continuously, there is no need to assume that he would be taken by surprise or have been perplexed. Besides, in most records, Gabriel attended the Holy Prophet’s presence for the first time on Saturday night, Sunday night and Monday night to ascend revelations to him.(3)

So, Gabriel’s visit in hara’ was not the first so that he

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might have been perplexed. Generally, it is the case that a person would not receive God's revelation unless he was quite prepared for such a huge position.

(5) How could it happen for Khadijah to have known more than the Holy Prophet and to have comforted him when she had seen him anxious?

(6) The worst part of the above fable is the assumption that the Holy Prophet had been raised to this position of prophethood without previous knowledge; and that he had not recognized Gabriel and could not have recognized him or his Message until an old Christian confirmed; and Muhammad (s) had relied on his prediction and had been assured of his prophethood and had become quiet! We do not need to elaborate on this story because it is so absurd that it would not need to be criticized.

(7) It is noteworthy that such unfounded myths have never been presented for the prophethood of the previous prophets.

(8) This myth is incompatible with what the Holy Qur’an states about the Holy Prophet:

The heart was not untrue making him see what he saw. (53:11)

Tabirsi, well-known Shi`ite scholar and interpreter of the Holy Qur'an, writes:

God would not reveal anything to His Prophet unless His revelations are accompanied by some vivid reasons and unless He assures to the Prophet that what is revealed unto him is from God. The Prophet would not need anything more and he does not need to be worried.(1)

When Imam al-Sadiq (s) was asked by one of his followers, “Why didn't the Holy Prophet assume that the

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revelation could have been nothing but Satan’s temptations when he received them?” The Imam answered,

“When God appoints a servant of His as a prophet, He would give him the required assurances in such a way that he would vividly observe what is revealed unto him.”(1)

Although they are distinguished scholars, the interpreters of Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim (in which `A’ishah’s account appears) have taken the narration as authentic and then tried to explain it, but they resorted to spurious reasoning which at times seems irrational.(2)

Similar narrations have been reported by narrators such as `Abdullah ibn Shaddad, `Ubayd ibn `Umayr, `Abdullah ibn `Abbas and `Urwah ibn al-Zubayr. However, since their accounts are baseless and invented, we will not deal

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with them.(1) These spurious and unfounded accounts have penetrated into some Christian sources and misused against the Holy Prophet.(2) This critique of ours would make them useless.

claims; whenever they saw him on the roads and streets, they used to remark, “The young man of Banu-`Abd al-Muttalib talks about the heavens.”(1) However, they were not aware of the content of his invitations since he did not proclaim his ideology. Therefore, they would not react harshly.

During this time, some people became Muslims. Then, one of these newly converted, named Arqam, offered his house which was at the foot of Safa Mount to be used by the Prophet.

Up to the time when he initiated his open invitation, the Holy Prophet and Muslims would gather at this house, which had become a center for the religious propaganda, and prayed therein.(2)

This is because it was natural for the Prophet to inform Khadijah, his wife, and `Ali, who was a member of his household and was educated and nourished by him, of his ideology as soon as he returned home from hara’. Those two who were familiar with Muhammad's sincerity, confirmed him immediately. It would not be difficult to prove this issue even in the absence of valid historical documents. However, there are ample documents, some of which we will address here:

(2) Great and well-known narrators report that Muhammad (s) became a prophet on Monday and `Ali prayed with him on Tuesday.(1)

(3) Imam `Ali (s), concerning this issue, remarks:

On that day, Islam had not yet entered the house of the Holy Prophet and Khadijah: I was the third one after them. I could vividly see the light of prophethood and smell its fragrance.(2)

(4) Elsewhere, Imam `Ali (s) refers to his pioneering in Islam:

O God, I am the only person who answered the Prophet's call and turned to You. Except for the Prophet, nobody else prayed You before me.(3)

(5) Imam `Ali (s) says elsewhere:

I am God's servant and the brother of the trustworthy Prophet. I prayed with him seven years prior to the

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others. Nobody may deny it except for a wicked liar.(1)

(6) `Ufayf ibn Qays al-Kindi says:

During the Ignorance Era, I used to be a trader of perfumes. On one of my journeys, I entered Mecca and visited `Abbas, one of the Meccan merchants and the Prophet's uncle, on an extremely hot day. A young man whose face was as bright as the moon came. He looked up at the sky, stood in the direction of the Kaaba and started praying. After a short time, another good-looking young man arrived, stood next to him and started praying. Then a veiled woman arrived, stood behind them and started praying. I was astonished to see three persons praying at the center of the idolaters. I turned my face toward `Abbas and exclaimed, “What restful scenery!” He repeated my sentence and added, “Do you recognize these three?”

I replied, No, I do not.” He said, “The first person was my nephew, Muhammad ibn `Abdullah; the second was my other nephew, `Ali ibn Abi-Talib; the third was Muhammad's wife. Muhammad claims that his religion has come from Allah. Now, these are the only believers in this religion on the entire earth.”(2)

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This issue vividly shows that at the beginning of the spread of Islam, it was Imam `Ali who joined the Prophet after Khadijah. Pioneering in the acceptance of Islam is a value which the Holy Qur’an has highly stressed:

And the foremost are the foremost; these are they who are drawn near to Allah. (56:10-11)

The Holy Qur’an also considers of great value the conversion to Islam of those who, prior to the conquest of Mecca, sacrificed their lives and wealth

for God’s sake and accepted the new religion:

…not alike; among you are those who spent before the victory and fought. They are more exalted in rank than those who spent and fought afterwards; and Allah has promised good to all; and Allah is aware of what you do. (57:10)

The significance of conversions to Islam prior to the conquest of Mecca (which occurred at the eighth year AH) lies in the fact that they accepted Islam at a time when it was not yet powerful and when Mecca was still the stronghold for the idolaters and Muslims' lives and wealth were at risk from permanent danger. Of course, Muslims achieved some security after their migration to Medina and the acceptance of Islam by the two tribes of Aws and Khazraj and the other neighboring tribes; in later military conflicts, Muslims were triumphant. However, the environment was still dangerous. For these reasons, the acceptance of Islam under those perilous and turbulent times was quite significant. Such early acceptance of Islam was a great honor for the Prophet's close followers. Having this in mind, we will realize how important Imam `Ali's early acceptance could have been.

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A man from the Hudhayl tribe entered Mecca and the Holy Prophet invited him to Islam. Abu-Jahl warned him, saying, “Never listen to Muhammad; this man considers us stupid and says that our dead parents would go to hell. Besides, he utters nonsense.” The man asked, “How come you don’t expel him from your city?” Abu-Jahl replied, “If he is expelled, our youth will go after him and listen to his flowery speech and then they will attack us.”(1)

`Utbah, a dignitary of Quraysh, complained to Asad ibn Zurarah, a nobleman from the Khazraj tribe in Yathrib, about the inclinations of the youth towards the Holy Prophet.(2)

An investigation of the list of the early Muslims shows that most of them were under thirty years of age. For instance, Sa`d ibn Abi-Waqqas was either seventeen(3) or nineteen(4) years old; al-Zubayr ibn al-`Awwam was fifteen(5) or sixteen;(6) `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Awf was thirty; he was born ten years after the Elephant Year.(7) Mus`ab ibn `Umayr was nearly twenty-five years old; at the time of his martyrdom at the Battle of Uhud that took place at the third year after Hegira, he was nearly forty years old.(8)

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Arqam, who submitted his house to the Prophet, was between twenty and thirty years old; when he died in 55 AH, he was eighty years old.(1)

bare-footed individuals who have adopted Islam!”(1)

The chiefs of Quraysh, once, passed by a gathering which the Holy Prophet had held with Suhayb, Khabbab, Bilal, `Ammar and some others. Observing this, they addressed the Holy Prophet, saying, “Muhammad! Have you selected only this few from among your nation and you are happy with them? Should we follow this group? Has God only guided this group? If you dismiss this group, we might then be your followers.” At this time, the following Qur'anic verses were revealed:

And do not drive away those who call upon their Lord in the morning and the evening, they desire only His favor; neither are you answerable for any reckoning of theirs, nor are they answerable for any reckoning of yours, so that you should drive them away and thus be of the unjust.

And thus, so We try some of them by others so that they say: Are these they upon whom Allah has conferred benefit from among us? Does not Allah best know the grateful? (6:52-53)

During the first years of his mission, people of Quraysh dispatched some representatives to ask about the Holy Prophet. They went to the Jews: “We have come here to seek your advice regarding the event that is taking place in our town. A young orphan thinks that he has been sent by Rahman (the All-beneficent God); and we do not know any person by this name except for one living in Yamamah.” The Jew asked for the characteristics of the Holy Prophet: “Who are his followers?” They replied, “The lowliest persons!” The great Jewish scholar replied

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smilingly, “This is the same Prophet whose signs are predicted in our Holy Book. His nation will be his worst enemies.”(1)

Of course, the rapid inclinations of the oppressed towards Islam did not mean securing the interests or benefits of special social classes; rather, they implied the negation of the worldly domination of man over man; they implied the adoption of Allah's government and domination—an immediate threat to the power of the aggressors and oppressors that excited their severe opposition. This matter had happened with the previous prophets as well:

But the chiefs of those who disbelieved from among his people said: We consider you but a mortal like ourselves, and we do not see who have followed you but those who are the meanest of us at first thought and we do not see in you any excellence over us; nay, we deem you liars. (11:27)

The chief of those who behaved proudly among his people said to those considered weak to those who believed from among them: Do you know that Salih is sent by his Lord? They said: Surely, we are believers in what he has been sent with. (7:75-76)

Having received this revelation, the Holy Prophet ordered Imam `Ali to prepare some food and invite the sons of `Abd al-Muttalib to hear God's revelation. Imam `Ali (s) carried out the order. Nearly forty people showed up. Among them were Abu-Talib, hamzah and Abu-Lahab. The food seemed insufficiently little; however, every body was able to eat their fill. Abu-Lahab declared, “This man has hypnotized you.” This statement caused the Holy Prophet to abandon his propagation of the faith on that day and the meeting came to an end with no result. Next day, `Ali (s) once again prepared some food and invited the same group. This time, the Holy Prophet, after dinner remarked,

I do not know of anybody among Arabs who has brought to his people anything better than what I am bringing to you. I am bringing to you the good of this world and the Other World. God has ordered me to guide you all to Him. Now, who is ready among you to help me and he will be my brother and successor?”(1)

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Nobody answered. `Ali (s), who was the youngest among them, said, “O Messenger of God; I will help you.” Then, the Holy Prophet replied,

“This is my brother, my representative and my successor. Listen to obey him.”

p This event leads us to the basic fact that the issues of prophethood and Imamate are inseparable; during the first years of his prophethood and on the first day of his mission, the Holy Prophet brought up the topic of Imamate and the future leadership of Muslims.

On the other hand, it should not be assumed that the Holy Prophet, up to his death and during the event of Ghadir Khumm, brought up `Ali's Imamate. Later on, he brought up the same issue on other occasions, such as in the famous hadith al-manzilah (Narration of Position).(1) However, the event of Ghadir Khumm was the most significant for the announcement of `Ali's successorship due to the fact that there were so many witnesses present.

With regards to the sequence of the surahs (chapters of the Holy Qur'an), it could be understood that the invitation of the relatives could have happened prior to the public invitation to the new faith.(2)

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From then on, the Prophet's invitation entered a new stage as he was engaged in the propagation of his faith in social gatherings, at the hajj ceremonies, at Mina, and among the tribes living in the outskirts of Mecca.

Prophet had the following reaction:

“If they put the sun in my right hand and the moon in the left, I would not stop my way. I have two options, either God will help me or I will be destroyed.”(1)

of their insistence on their idolatry or were there other reasons?

Of course, we are talking about the motives of the chiefs of Quraysh, because the general publics were simple and naive followers of those chiefs; and to mobilize them against the new religion was not a hard job. This is because they were not strong believers of their sect and customs anyhow.

Considering Quraysh's influence and high social status in Mecca, we could easily find the reasons behind their opposition. This is because, as we have seen above, Quraysh had monopolized some social privileges related to Mecca, such as social and economic power; they would not tolerate any rival. They used to receive tribute and toll from other tribes by force and imposed their own policies over other tribes related to the pilgrims.

Thus, it was natural for them not to tolerate Muhammad (s), because they found out very early in Muhammad's propagations that the new faith was in conflict with their ideology. They could also anticipate that one day, the Holy Prophet would become famous and this was in conflict with their pride.

However, an investigation of the content of some surahs and verses revealed to the Holy Prophet at Mecca, we could pinpoint some of the most significant motives for the opposition of Quraysh to the Holy Prophet during the first years of propagations:

(1) Worry over the disintegration of the social order

Concerning the tribal system dominating the social order in Mecca and due to Quraysh’s special prerogatives, a form of aristocratic government was prevailing there. The chiefs of Quraysh were accustomed

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to this system; they did not expect any blow to be leveled against it. This was the social condition while the first followers of Muhammad (s) were the youths, the impoverished, the deprived and the slaves. Muhammad (s) did not belong to the nobility. From his childhood, he was an orphan; and during his youth, he was poor belonging to the second class inside Quraysh. His uncle, Abu-Talib, despite his ancestral prestige and dignity, was insolvent. All these were warnings to the tribal system of Quraysh that the very basis of their social order would be shaken. Having noticed that, they worried about the youth and the deprived for their inclinations towards the new faith. The envoy of Quraysh to Abyssinia to bring back the Muslim migrants introduced themselves to the king as the special envoy of the Meccan nobility.

The Holy Qur'an reveals the Quraysh's aristocratic attitude in their objection to the idea of prophethood not being offered to one of the noblemen of either Mecca or Ta’if:

And they say: Why has not the Qur'an been revealed to a man of importance in the two towns? (43:31)

According to an interpretation, by men of importance is meant Walid Ibn Mughirah, the head of Banu-Makhzum in Mecca, and `Urwah ibn Mas`ud al-Thaqafi, the well-known wealthy man of Ta’if.(1) The reason behind the revelation of this verse is said to be the following event:

Once, Walid said, “Why should the Qur'an be revealed to Muhammad and not to me while I am the head of

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Quraysh?”(1) Thus, the Quraysh showed their animosity to Muhammad (s) because his faith was a real threat to their social order.

(2) Economic Worries

Some recent researchers have considered the economic factor among the motives for Quraysh’s opposition to Islam. This is because a series of Meccan verses of the Holy Qur'an(2) severely reprimand the hoarders and money-mongers of those days. The great Meccan wealthy men, who had earned their huge wealth in the trades and through the supervision over the Kaaba, felt a great danger when they heard these verses. The progress of Islam would jeopardize their benefits badly. Here are some samples of such verses:

Leave Me and him whom I created alone, and give him vast riches, and sons dwelling in his presence, And I adjusted affairs for him adjustably; and yet he desires that I should add more, By no means! Surely, he offers opposition to our communications. (74:11-16)

I will cast him into hell. And what will make you realize what hell is? It leaves naught nor does spare naught. It scorches the mortal. (74:26)(3)

Perdition overtake both hands of Abu-Lahab, and he will perish. Neither his wealth nor what he earns will

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avail him. He shall soon burn in fire that flames, and his wife, the bearer of fuel. (111:1-4)(1)

Woe to every slanderer, defamer, who amasses wealth and considers it a provision against mishap; He thinks that his wealth will make him immortal. Nay! He shall most certainly be hurled into the crushing disaster, and what will make you realize what the crushing disaster is? It is the fire kindled by Allah, which rises above the hearts. Surely, it shall be closed over upon them, in extended columns. (104:1-7)

Then as for him who gives away and guards against evil, and accepts the best, We will facilitate for him the easy end. And as for him who is niggardly and considers himself from need of Allah, and rejects the best, we will facilitate for him the difficult end. And his wealth will not avail him when he perishes. (92:4:11)(2)

A careful observation of the content of these surahs reveals that they were revealed to the Holy Prophet after Quraysh’s opposition. The increase in number of opponents might have been the reason for the revelation of these verses. However, the toughest opponents of the Holy Prophet were the traders and the wealthy. In accordance with a historical report, when the Messenger of God started guiding his people towards the light of the Religion, they at first did not go away from him; rather, they were about to accept his ideology. Then he started insulting their idols and the wealthy people from Ta’if.(3)

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These people did not like his statements; they began struggling against him and invoking their followers against him. Then, the mass offended and deserted him.(1)

(3) Fear of the Neighboring Power

The Holy Qur'an refers to their fear of the neighboring states and powers and finds this worry baseless:

And they say: If we follow the guidance with you, we shall be carried off from our country. What! Have We not settled them in a safe, sacred territory to fruits of every kind shall be drawn? Sustenance from Us; but most of them do not know. (28:57)

Once, harith ibn Nawfal ibn `Abd-Manaf said to the Holy Prophet, “We know that what you say is right; but if we believe in you, we fear that the Arabs might throw us out of our land and we are not strong enough to confront which

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them.(1)

From their statements, worry could be observed and fear of the Iranian kings and Roman emperors(2) could be identified; this was the Arabs’ weak point towards the neighboring political powers.

This fear could be seen in the following event: The Holy Prophet had invited some of the great Arab personalities and read them some of the verses of the Holy Qur'an which dealt with ethical training. All of them were highly impressed and each one of them started admiring them. However, their leader, Muthanna, said, “We are caught between two waters: on one side are the Arab waters and shores, and on the other side there lie Iran and Khosrow rivers. Khosrow has ordered us not to use any turmoil and not to shelter any wrongdoer. The acceptance of your faith by us is not palatable for the kings. If we do anything wrong here in our land, it might be excused. However, such an error around Iran is not pardonable by their king.”(3)

(4) Tribal Competition and Jealousy

Tribal competitions and false pride were prevalent among the Arab tribes and communities. Since the Holy Prophet belonged to Banu-Hashim, the chiefs of the other tribes—due to their jealousy—could not accept his faith, which was in the long run a sign of dignity for Banu-Hashim. Abu-Jahl, who was from Banu-Makhzum tribe and one of the most influential and wealthy people of

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Quraysh, frankly revealed his secret, “We struggled against the children of `Abd-Manaf over the attainment of dignity. They fed the needy; so did we. They gave horses to the needy; so did we. They provided the needy with money; so did we. Then we were neck to neck. But, then, they say that they have a prophet among themselves who gets revelation from God. Now how can we ever get equal to them? By God, we shall never believe in what he says nor shall we ever confirm him.”(1)

Umayyah ibn Abi-Salt, a nobleman and great poet of Ta’if, did not believe in Islam for the same reason. For years, he waited for the arrival of the Promised Prophet and at the same time, he wished that he himself would be that Prophet. When he heard about the prophethood of Muhammad (s), he abstained from following him and the reason he offered for his denial was the following: “How could I tell the women of Ta’if that another person had obtained the status of prophethood? I have always told them that I would be the promised prophet. Now how could I endure this shame on my side to follow the young man of `Abd-Manaf?”(2)

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Most of torture was leveled against the young who had converted to Islam. These young people, as we have already mentioned, were mostly slaves or strangers who had no tribal protection of any sort.(1) Yasir and his son `Ammar, Bilal ibn Rabah, Khabbab ibn al-Aratt, Abu-Fukayhah, Amir ibn Fuhayrah, Suhayb ibn Sinan, and, among women and female slaves, Sumayyah, Umm-`Ubays, Zinnirah, Labibah (or Lubaynah) and finally Nahdiyyah(2) were tortured by various means such like keeping them hungry or thirsty, imprisonment, striking and hitting, being forced to lie on the hot sands of the desert of Mecca at noon or to wear iron coats, or being tied up with rope and ridiculed by children.

land.(1) Furthermore, people of Abyssinia were Christians; they had a lot in common with Muslims, such as belief in God. It is said that the Abyssinian people were Ya`qubian Christians who considered God as one entity and not part of a Trinity. For this reason, they were close to the Islamic monotheism.(2)

On the Prophet's recommendation, a group of fifteen(3) defenseless Muslims in the fifth year after the Divine Mission secretly headed for Abyssinia and arrived there through Shu`aybah port or the Red Sea. This group stayed there for two or three months. Upon the spread of the rumor that people of Quraysh embraced Islam and ceased torturing Muslims, they returned to Mecca.(4)

However, since the torture of Muslims continued, a group of them headed for Abyssinia. This time, there were one hundred and one Muslims (both men and women).(5) They were sponsored by Ja`far ibn Abi-Talib. With the passage of time, Muslims' migration brought about worry to the people of Quraysh who, then, dispatched an envoy to the royal court of al-Najashi,

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asking for the Muslims' deportation. Realizing the conspiracy, Abu-Talib wrote a letter to al-Najashi asking him to protect the Muslims.(1)

After Quraysh had set forth their claim for the return of the Muslims to Mecca, Ja`far ibn Abu-Talib vehemently defended the Muslims. The king of Abyssinia was greatly moved; he consequently refused to let the Muslims go and decided to protect them.(2)

Of course, the emigrants included both the tortured ones and others from the strongest tribes whom nobody dared to punish. However, Mecca remained an area of pressure, torture and suppression of beliefs. By sending them to Abyssinia, the Holy Prophet had in mind to build up a center for struggle against idolatry. At the same time, he planned to keep Muslims out of danger. As we know, the Muslims’ stay in Abyssinia was accompanied by Islamic propagation, because al-Najashi accepted Islam and established some relations with the Holy

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Prophet.(1) Quraysh, most probably, were worried of this issue; they therefore dispatched their representatives to that area to stop such relationships.

In accordance with some documents, the Holy Prophet followed the news of the emigrants; he received the news of the apostasy and later death of `Ubaydullah ibn Jahsh.(2)

This time, the Muslim emigrants stayed there even longer. Eleven of them passed away there. Thirty-nine of them returned to Mecca prior to the Holy Prophet's emigration. Twenty-six men and some women returned to Mecca after the Battle of Badr. The last group, supervised by Ja`far Ibn Abi-Talib, returned home on the 7th year of Hegira and met the Holy Prophet after the Conquest Khaybar.(3)

age, she witnessed her father's severest struggles against the unbelievers; she could vividly remember all the troubles of that period.

people of God's Grandeur. God does not need time or place as the skeptics erroneously assume.”(1)

Throne next to Him. Such issues are null and void.(1)

In the opinion of the Twelvers Imamiyyah, the Holy Prophet's heavenly journey was material; i.e. he made this ascension in body and soul.(2) According to Islamic narrations, during the mi`raj, the daily and nightly prayers were set at five.(3) If, prior to mi`raj, some prayers are observed being performed by either the Holy Prophet or Imam `Ali, it has been either a non-compulsory prayer or a kind of prayer based on the specific situations which was not a regular daily prayer with which we are familiar.(4)

any transactions with them.(1)

The life of the people of Mecca was based on trade; economic activities were in the hands of Quraysh; therefore, they were able to deprive anybody or any group of this asset. They had an effective weapon at their disposal and it was expected that Banu-Hashim would be made destitute within a short time. Hence, the chiefs of Quraysh imposed such sanctions on Banu-Hashim so as to make them socially deprived.(2)

On Abu-Talib's recommendation,(3) all the members of Banu-Hashim, both Muslims and non-Muslims,(4) except for Abu-Lahab, gathered at Abi-Talib Col and for three years after the boycott, they lived there. Although Quraysh’s sanctions were both social and economic in nature, Abu-Talib asked the Holy Prophet and Banu-Hashim to reside in that col because people of Quraysh had become outrageous; and the only thing which could satisfy them was to kill Muhammad (s). Abu-Talib appointed forty men(5) of Banu-Hashim to guard the col and each night he asked the Holy Prophet to change his bed so that he might be secure. Abu-Talib’s son, `Ali, then used to replace the Holy Prophet in his bed so as to

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save him from any anticipated danger.(1)

During this harsh time, Quraysh stopped any food from entering the col. The residents of this col could only buy their sustenance during the sacred months.(2) Even at that time, Quraysh warned the caravans that entered Mecca not to sell anything to Banu-Hashim, lest their wealth would be plundered.(3) If Banu-Hashim desired to buy anything, the prices would rise dramatically so that they could not have any buying power.(4)

At times, Abu’l-`As ibn Rabi`(5) or hakim ibn hizam(6) secretly took some foodstuff for Banu-Hashim. Among Banu-Hashim, Imam `Ali (a.s) used to leave the col to bring some foodstuff.(7) During this period, the Holy Prophet, Abu-Talib and Khadijah lost all their wealth.(8) Khadijah, in particular, spent all her money for the Holy Prophet in that col.(9)

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Three years later, the Holy Prophet informed(1) people of Quraysh, through Abu-Talib, that the treaty was rotted by termites and some of the signing parties had become sorry(2) for having signed on such a shameful treaty. Only then, they volunteered to annul this treaty.(3) In this way, Banu-Hashim returned home.(4) In one of his letters to Mu`awiyah, Imam `Ali (a.s) remembers those harsh days:

Our own tribe (i.e. Quraysh) decided to murder our Prophet and destroy us completely; they added to our disasters and worries and they did strange things to us. They made our lives bitter, causing us to live in worry and pain. They forced us to live in difficult conditions. They kindled the fire of war and hatred against us. However, God willed that we would be the supporter of His religion. The believers among us hoped that God would bless them and give them rewards. However, the unbelievers continued protecting the interests of their own households. None of Quraysh who had converted to Islam received any torture that we received, because each one of them had somebody among their relatives to take care of him. So, they were secure.(5)

Ten years after prophethood of Muhammad (s) and a little time leaving the col, Khadijah passed away. A short time after that, Abu-Talib also passed away.(1) The passing away of these two persons was a great blow to the Holy Prophet.(2)

With the death of these two loyal friends, mishaps and disasters fell over the shoulders of the Holy Prophet one by one and he was put in a terribly difficult situation.(3)

gave me as gifts children from her.”(1)

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would protect the Holy Prophet. Because familial prejudices prevailed at that time, he pretended that he was protecting Muhammad (s) out of tribal zeal.(1) In this regard, Imam al-Sadiq (s) has said,

Abu-Talib acted like the Companions of the Cave (Seven Sleepers of Ephesus) who concealed their faith and pretended to be unbelievers; so, they received double rewards from God.(2)

However, some historians claim that Abu-Talib had not embraced the new faith and passed away an unbeliever. There are pieces of evidence which lead us to believe that he was a believer of Muhammad's faith and ideology. We will present two of them hereinafter:

examples of his poems:

O king of Abyssinia, be aware that Muhammad, like Moses and Jesus, is a prophet. He has brought the same light of guidance that those two brought to man. All prophets are commissioned by God to lead people away from sins.(1)

You should have known that we have believed that Muhammad, just like Moses, is a Messenger whose name is mentioned in the previous bibles.(2)

I am certain that Muhammad's faith is the best faith in the world.(3)

sacrifices?(1)

In the opinion of some historians, some of those who have tried to prove Abu-Talib's atheism do so out of political motives and tribal jealousies, because the Holy Prophet's followers (who later turned into his political rivals) were mostly idol-worshippers. Only `Ali (a.s) lacked such idol-worshipping background since he was nurtured in the Holy Prophet’s school. Those who wish to belittle Imam `Ali claim that his father was not a believer. In this way, they claim that he had idolatry in his blood. In fact, the only guilt Abu-Talib had was his fatherhood of `Ali (a.s). He would not receive such an accusation if he had not been `Ali's father.

The Umayyad and `Abbasid rulers were at the center of these cruelties, because their ancestors could never reach the rank of Imam `Ali (a.s); they never had such a prestige; therefore, they tried in vain to humiliate him in any way they could.

The charges and accusations which they had leveled at Abu-Talib were more becoming of `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (the Holy Prophet's uncle and the ancestor of the `Abbasid rulers), because `Abbas used to be in Mecca up to the siege in the 8th year of Hegira. Moreover, he was taken as a prisoner in the army of the unbelievers and

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was then freed by paying tribute. When the siege of Mecca was underway, he reached the Islamic army and asked the Holy Prophet to release Abu-Sufyan, the head of the unbelievers. Considering all these, nobody has ever claimed that he was an unbeliever! Is this a just evaluation of these two figures? For this reason, scholars look at the accusation of being an atheist on the part of Abu-Talib as suspect.(1)

customs of the Ignorance Era. Here are some evidences:

(1) The Holy Prophet married Khadijah when he was twenty-five years old and at the zenith of youthful zeal and passion whereas she had lost the passion of youth when she married him. She lived with him for twenty-five years.

(2) The Holy Prophet did not marry any other woman as long as Khadijah was alive, while polygamy was prevalent in Arabia at that time.

(3) The other marriages of the Holy Prophet took place after the age of fifty, before or after Hegira, when he was in the center of political, social and military turmoil. Could a person get into pleasure seeking activities under such circumstances? Could the Holy Prophet, while living in Medina, find a chance to be involved in lust and whims?

(4) Was life easy and smooth with different wives, each of whom had a special set of likes and dislikes and a series of womanly jealousies; wives who had hurt the Holy Prophet on various occasions?(1) Is such a life compatible with pleasure-seeking?

(5) Each one of the Holy Prophet's wives belonged to a different tribe; they were not relatives. Was such a marriage accidental and haphazard?

(6) After the Holy Prophet's emigration to Yathrib and the expansion of Islam and an increase in his spiritual influence, his social and political power had greatly risen and the Arab leaders would take pride in having their

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daughters married to the Holy Prophet. However, most of the women that he married were widows or elderly women lacking any protector, while he encouraged men to marry young girls.

Let us introduce some of the Holy Prophet's wives:

Khadijah in these human traits.(1) She had a special bond with the Household of the Holy Prophet. Most of the time, she kept the secrets of the Divinely leadership of the Holy Prophet’s Household.(2)

on you, and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. (33:4-5)

Upon receiving these revelations, the Holy Prophet said to Zayd, “You are Zayd son of harithah.” From then on, he was nicknamed freed by the Holy Prophet.(1)

The Holy Prophet proposed Zaynab for himself. However, since she was one of the granddaughters of `Abd al-Muttalib and she belonged to a well-known tribe, she refused to accept such a proposal in the beginning, because Zayd was not from a Quraysh family; rather, he was freed slave. However, the Holy Prophet insisted; and Zaynab agreed. This marriage was the annihilation of racial and class privileges, which were so emphatically approved of. The Prophet's insistence on such a marriage was aimed at removing such unfounded principles.

Due to some ethical maladjustment, the marriage of Zaynab and Zayd became vulnerable; it was on the threshold of being cut. Several times, Zayd decided to divorce her, but the Holy Prophet called them for more perseverance by saying, “Keep your spouse.”(2) Finally, Zayd divorced her. After their divorce, the Holy Prophet received direction from God to marry Zaynab so that the marriage of an adopted son's divorcee would not create a problem for Muslims. In this way, a wrong custom was broken, because an adopted son was considered real son. For this reason, marrying the wife of such a person was not allowed. The Holy Qur'an describes the aim of this marriage in the following manner:

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And when you said to him to whom Allah had shown favor and to whom you had shown a favor: Keep your wife to yourself and be careful of your duty to Allah; and you concealed in your soul what Allah would bring to light, and you feared men, and Allah had a greater right that you should fear Him. But when Zayd had accomplished his want of her, We gave her to you as a wife, so that there should be no difficulty for the believers in respect of the wives of their adopted sons, when they have accomplished their want of them; and Allah's command shall be performed. (33:37)

The unbelievers found an excuse in this marriage to level some accusations against the Holy Prophet: they accused him of marrying the wife of his son!(1) Then God revealed to the Holy Prophet:

Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Apostle of Allah and the last of the Holy Prophets; and Allah is Cognizant of all things. (33:40)

Some Christian Orientalists have changed this event into a romance and have added unfounded details to it,(2) but this

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accusation does not comply with the Holy Prophet’s traits. Besides, we have seen that the issue was something else and this is vividly explained in the Holy Qur'an.

The aforementioned accounts of the Holy Prophet’s wives are enough for an explanation of the real motives behind his polygamy. The other wives of the Holy Prophet had more or less similar traits.

protectors there. On this journey, Zayd ibn harithah(1) and Imam `Ali(2) accompanied him.

The Holy Prophet met three brothers of the noblemen of Thaqif; the wife of one of these three was from a branch of Quraysh, called Banu-Jumah.(3) He invited them to Islam and asked them for help. However, they refused and used strong words in reply. He also asked them to keep his journey secret so that the chiefs of Quraysh might not be annoyed. But they did not pay attention to what he said.

The Holy Prophet visited other leaders of Ta’if as well, but they rejected his invitation and feared that their youth might be inclined towards Islam.(4) The leaders of Ta’if provoked the rogues, the destitute, and their slaves to curse, humiliate and throw stones at him. In this conflict, some parts of the Holy Prophet's legs were badly hurt and Zayd's head was wounded.

The Holy Prophet headed for a vineyard which belonged to `Utbah and Shaybah, two chiefs of Quraysh, and rested in the shade of a vine, praying to God.

`Utbah and Shaybah, who had been watching the tormenting of the Holy Prophet, sympathized with him; they sent him some grapes through their Christian servant, `Addas, who was from Nineveh. While eating the grapes, the Holy Prophet said, “In the Name of Allah.”

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This statement roused `Addas's curiosity. After some conversation through which the Holy Prophet told `Addas about his Divine mission, `Addas threw himself at the Holy Prophet's feet, kissed his hands and feet,(1) and became Muslim.(2) Having stayed in Ta’if(3) for ten days and discouraged by the refusal of the Thaqif tribe, he returned to Mecca.

Imam `Ali accompanied him. So, they were a group of three persons who could depend on themselves and needed no assistance.

(4) The Holy Prophet was one of the bravest Arabs; weakness has never seen on him. Recalling the Holy Prophet's bravery in battles, Imam `Ali (a.s) remarks:

When the fire of war was severely kindled, we used to resort to the Holy Prophet; under those circumstances, there was nobody closer to the enemy than he was.(1)

(5) The Holy Prophet severely struggled against the system of tribalism which was the source of his calamity. How could he approve of the tradition of taking refuge which was an offshoot of tribalism? How could he confirm it?

(6) As is reported by Buladhari and Ibn Sa`d, the Holy Prophet's journey to Ta’if took place at the end of month Shawwal. If we accept this report as valid, it means that his stay in Ta’if and his return to Mecca could have occurred within the sacred month in which bloodshed and molestation are suspended. Thus, there was no danger against the Holy Prophet's life and consequently he did not need any protection.

With regards to these documents, we may infer that the Holy Prophet, on his return from Ta’if, had entered Wadi Nakhlah before he entered Mecca. On his return, he spent a night there(2) when a group of jinn(3) heard the verses of

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the Holy Qur'an.(1)

children from their parents, brothers from brothers, wives from husbands and tribe members from one another.”(1)

Having arrived at this decision, the Arab leaders spread. From then on, they would provoke the hajj pilgrims not to be carried away by the indoctrinations of the Holy Prophet.(2)

What the higher council of Quraysh called magic and attributed to the Holy Prophet was in fact an attribute for the attractive verses of the Holy Qur'an which hypnotized everyone who listened to them. The sanctions against the listening to the Qur'anic verses reached such a point that the chiefs of Quraysh recommended that a great person such as As`ad ibn Zurarah should insert cotton in his ears in order to be safe against Muhammad's magic!”(3)

In his dialogues with Banu-`Amir, the Holy Prophet was told by one of the elderly chiefs of that tribe, named Bayharah ibn Firas, “If we swear allegiance to you and God makes you victorious over your opponents, will you promise your succession to us?” The Holy Prophet replied, “That is God's affair, not mine. God will nominate anybody He wishes.” Aggressively, the man replied, “You want us to stand against the Arabs for your sake and defend you; and upon your victory, somebody else gets the initiatives? We do not need your religion.”(1)

It is narrated that the same issue was brought up by the elders of the Kindah tribe to whom the Holy Prophet gave the same reaction.(2) This kind of reply and taking position on the part of the Holy Prophet is significant in two ways:

First: He emphasized that the issue of succession is God's affair. This confirms the issue that he has been appointed by God; i.e. his position is a Divine selection and this adoption takes place by God, not through people.

Second: The Holy Prophet, contrary to other statesmen who do everything in order to obtain their objectives, did not make use of unethical instruments. Although the adoption of Islam by the members of a large tribe was of utmost significance and value in those days, the Holy Prophet did not promise anything which he could not

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keep.

During the hajj and `Umrah ceremonies in which security prevailed due to the sacredness of those months and during which a great number of people could come from different areas to Mecca and Mina or the markets outside Mecca, such as the seasonal markets of `Uka¨, al-Majannah and Dhi’l-Majaz,(1) the Holy Prophet extended his invitation and visited the elderly chiefs of the tribes. Even if the pilgrims themselves did not accept Islam, they spread the news of the Holy Prophet's prophethood in their cities and towns; and this was a step ahead towards victory and success.

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paved the way for his emigration. These events had made this city the center for the propagation of Islam. Among these events were the following:

The Jews had owned the fertile lands around the city; they had created numerous palm groves, enjoyed wealth and excelled all others economically.(1) Once in a while, some quarrels occurred between them and the tribes of Aws and Khazraj. The Jews used to threaten them, saying, “In the near future, there shall come a new prophet whom we will follow and with his help we will root you out, just like the peoples of `Ad and Iram.”(2)

Because the Jews enjoyed a higher cultural status and they were respected by the idolaters, who believed in whatever the Jews would tell them, the issue of

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prophethood had rooted in the minds of the tribes of Aws and Khazraj.

Since older times, wars and bloodshed took place between the tribes of Aws and Khazraj. The last of these conflicts was the war of Bu`ath. These conflicts had resulted in a lot of casualties and damages on both sides who, because they had suffered greatly, looked forward to ceasefire and compromise. However, there was no impartial person to carry out such a mission. `Abdullah Ibn Ubayy, who was not of the elderly chiefs of Khazraj, had announced his impartiality during the battle of Bu`ath and desired for a ceasefire and reconciliation so that he might govern both of them. He had prepared for the coronation ceremonies.(1) However, the encounters of Aws and Khazraj with the Holy Prophet in Mecca changed the direction of events dramatically and `Abdullah Ibn Ubayy lost his chance.

each other, “Be aware; this is the same prophet predicted by the Jews. Now we should not fall behind them in accepting his religion.” Then, they accepted Islam by telling the Holy Prophet, “We have left our people in the worst form of enmity. We hope that God will make them conciliate through you. Now, we will return to Yathrib and start inviting them to Islam. If they accept this religion, there will be nobody dearer to us than you.”

Upon their return to Yathrib, this group invited people to Islam. Not long after, the name of Islam was heard in every house of Yathrib and the Holy Prophet's name was uttered by everybody.(1)

The Holy Prophet promised them heaven as a reward for their keeping this treaty.(1) After the hajj ceremony, they returned to Yathrib and asked the Holy Prophet to appoint a teacher to teach them the Holy Qur'an and the principles of Islam. The Holy Prophet sent Mus`ab ibn `Umayr to them.(2) Due to his hard work in propagation, a great number of people accepted the Islamic faith. In Mecca, the chiefs opposed Islam; but the youth and the deprived ones accepted it as religion. However, in Yathrib, it was the other way round; the chiefs pioneered to adopt Islam and people naturally followed their suit. This was one of the factors for the spread of Islam in this city.

whom were from Aws and two women, entered Mecca. On the twelfth of Dhu’l-hijjah, the second treaty of `Aqabah was concluded with a lot of precautions. The signers pledged that if the Holy Prophet emigrated to their city, they would protect him like their own relatives and children and fight anybody who would fight against him. For this reason, this treaty came to be called bay`at al-harb (the pledge of war). At the end of this meeting, the signers elected twelve representatives to manage their affairs upon their return to Yathrib.(1)

safe place.”(1) For two and a half months, (i.e. from the middle of Dhu’l-hijjah up to the end of Safar)(2) Muslims gradually headed for Yathrib despite all hardships that Quraysh put in their way. Hence, no Muslim remained in Mecca except for the Holy Prophet, Imam `Ali, Abu-Bakr and some others. In the history of Islam, those Muslims who emigrated to Yathrib are called muhajirun (Emigrants) and those who helped out the Holy Prophet in Yathrib are called ansar.

through losing control over this city.

(4) Yathrib was on the trade route from Mecca to Damascus and Muslims could easily make this route unsafe and vulnerable; they might also jeopardize trade as a whole.

These worries forced the chiefs of Quraysh to gather at Dar al-Nidwah (the consular center) for further consultation and deliberations. Some proposed that the Holy Prophet be exiled or imprisoned. However, these two proposals were rejected for certain reasons. Finally, they decided to murder him although such an act would not look very simple, because Banu-Hashim would seek revenge. To avoid such expected vengeance, they decided to appoint one young man from every tribe so that they could murder him in his bed. In this way, Banu-Hashim could not rise to avenge because the assassination would have taken place with several men from different tribes; and Banu-Hashim could not fight all these tribes; so, they would have to receive ransom and blood-money and the story would come to an end. To carry out their plot, chiefs of Quraysh selected the first night of Rabi` al-Awwal. God refers to their conspiracy with the following words:

And when those who disbelieved devised plans against you that they might confine you, slay you, or drive you away; and they devised plans and Allah too had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners. (8:30)

(a.s) about his plan and ordered him to replace him in bed that night and cover himself with his bedspread. Imam `Ali (a.s) immediately accepted this mission.

Accompanied by Abu- Bakr, the Holy Prophet headed for Thawr Cave to the south of Mecca that night and stayed there for three days until chiefs of Quraysh despaired of finding him. He wanted to find a safe time to continue his migration. God, in the Holy Qur'an, refers to the Holy Prophet's loneliness and to the worries of his companion. Despite all precautious actions that the chiefs of Quraysh had taken, they could not locate the Holy Prophet:

If you will not aid him, Allah certainly being the second of the two, when they were both in the cave, when he said to his companion: Grieve not, surely Allah is with us, So Allah sent down His tranquility upon him and strengthened him with hosts which you did not see, and made lowest the word of those who disbelieved; and the word of Allah that is the highest; and Allah is Mighty, Wise. (9:40)

Anybody who would replace the Holy Prophet in bed had little chance to survive. However, `Ali, who had replaced the Holy Prophet in bed many times before that event, such as he had done when they were besieged in Abu-Talib Col, in purpose of securing his safety, sacrificed his life to protect the Holy Prophet's. Referring to this bravery and sacrifice of Imam `Ali, Almighty God says:

And among men is he who sells himself to seek the pleasure of Allah; and Allah is Affectionate to the servants. (2:207)

Exegetes of the Holy Qur'an agree that this verse was revealed on account of the sacrifice and bravery of `Ali at that night, which is called laylat al-mabit.(1)

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Referring to the conspiracy of Quraysh during that dangerous night, Imam `Ali, in one of his sermons, describes his mental condition as follows:

The Prophet ordered me to spend that night on his bed (while he would be leaving for Medina) and use my life as a shield for the protection of his life. I accepted it on the spot. I would be glad to die for him. The Prophet left me and I slept on his bed. The Quraysh armed forces entered, hoping to murder him. When they charged at the room where I was staying, I stood up, drew my sword and protected myself. This is the issue of which God is aware and people know.”(1)

Quba, on the outskirts of Yathrib, where the tribe Banu-`Amr ibn `Awf lived.(1) He waited there for a few days, waiting for `Ali's arrival. During this time, he established a mosque there.(2)

After the Holy Prophet's migration, `Ali (a.s) stayed for three days in Mecca and carried out his obligations and tasks.(3) He then accompanied his mother Fatimah bint Asad and Fatimah daughter of the Holy Prophet and Fatimah daughter of al-Zubayr ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and two others to Quba where they joined the Holy Prophet.(4)

special group so that he could avoid future conflicts. His discretion was similar to one concerning the place of the installation of the Black Stone of the Kaaba.

Finally, the camel came to rest in the district of Banu’l-Najjar, on a piece of land belonging to the two orphans, close to the house of Abu-Ayyub Ansari (Khalid ibn Zayd Khazraji). All people were now crowding around the Holy Prophet; they asked him to give them the honor to be their guest. Abu-Ayyub took the Holy Prophet's baggage to his own home and the Holy Prophet followed. He stayed there until the Masjid al-Nabi (The Prophet’s Mosque) was established and there was a room built next to it for the Holy Prophet to live in.(1)

Holy Prophet's grand companions.(1) However, another research indicates that the initiator for this feat was the Holy Prophet himself. Some great Muslim historians have written that the Holy Prophet, after his migration to Yathrib in Rabi` al-Awwal, ordered that events should be referred in relation to this day.(2) The documents for this claim are some of the Holy Prophet's letters, documents and communications which are handed down to us and dated from the above date. There are two samples here:

(1) The Holy Prophet signed a treaty with the Jews of Muqna ending with the following statement: Written by `Ali ibn Abi-Talib in the ninth year of Hegira.(3)

(2) In a treaty with the Christians of Najran, we read the following: The Holy Prophet ordered `Ali to write down: This treaty is signed in the fifth year of Hegira.(4)

Based on some documents, the recording of events and affairs up to the fifth year of Hegira took place on the basis of months alone. Here are some such documents:

Abu-Sa`id Khidri says: Fasting during the month of Ramazan was enacted as obligatory one month after the change of the kiblah (i.e. the direction faced in prayers)

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during the eighteenth month of Hegira.(1)

`Abdullah Ibn Unays, the commander of the army sent to war against Sufyan ibn Khalid writes: I left Medina on Monday, the fifth of Muharram; the fiftieth month of Hegira.”(2)

Muhammad ibn Maslamah, recounting the campaign against the tribe of Qurta,(3) writes: I left Medina on the tenth of Muharram and returned on the last night of Muharram, the fiftieth month after Hegira, after a leave of nineteen days.”(4)

For these reasons, the founder of the Hijri calendar was the Holy Prophet;(5) and since, in the reign of `Umar, there appeared some disagreements on the exact dates of some historical events,(6) he formalized this calendar on the sixteenth year of Hegira, and in place of Rabi` al-Awwal—the month in which the Holy Prophet arrived in Medina—he appointed Muharram as the starting point of the Hijri calendar.(7)

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guaranteeing better social conditions for its people. In order to envisage and achieve great ultimate goals, he had to have peace and tranquility within the community. Of course, this was hard to achieve because the social structure in Medina was quite heterogeneous. There were different groups of Arabs who belonged to either the tribe of Aws or that of Khazraj. There were also some Jews living in this city who were in touch with those Arabs. There were also new Muslim comers from Mecca. This state of affairs could have ended in social unrest and disasters. For this reason, the Holy Prophet initiated the draft of the first constitution or the greatest historic document in Islam. This contract defined the rights of the citizens of the various groups and secured peace and justice for all citizens. Here, we will mention some items and paragraphs of this great contract:

(1) Muslims and Jews(1)constitute a single nation (ummah).

(2) Muslims and Jews are free to follow their faith.

(3) The emigrants of Quraysh, like the pre-Islamic days, should pay blood-money. If anyone of them commits homicide or becomes captive, others should pay the ransom in accordance with accepted terms among believers and free the captive in this way.

(4) Banu-`Amr ibn `Awf (a tribe of Ansar) and other branches should pay blood-money like others.

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(5) Nobody is allowed to give asylum to anybody's slaves, children or other family members without his consent.

(6) The signers of this contract collectively have to defend the city of Medina.

(7) Medina is a sacred city and any kind of bloodshed is forbidden there.

(8) The final judge and arbitrator for the settlement of the probable disagreements and conflicts will be Muhammad (s).(1)

A cursory look at the events of those days shows that this contract, which was concluded in the earlier months of the Holy Prophet's arrival at Medina,(2) was effective in securing tranquility for citizens. Up to the second year of Hegira, i.e. until the Battle of Badr which occurred due to the conspiracies of Banu-Qaynuqa`, no disturbance or turbulence is recorded.

south (Yemen) and were from the Qahtani race, and Muhajirun belonged to the Northern Arabs and to the `Adnani race; and during the days of Ignorance, there were severe racial conflicts between the two.

Ansar also used to work in agriculture and gardening, while the Meccan Arabs were traders who considered agriculture lowly and classless affair. Furthermore, these two groups had been brought up in two quite different social settings and now they were considered religious brethren. They had gathered in Medina and the probabilities existed that the remnants of the previous cultures still remained in their souls and minds; and that some ancient obstacles might be renewed. For this reason, the Holy Prophet initiated a brotherly contract between these two groups designating each Muhajir (Meccan emigrant) as a brother for a corresponding Ansar,(1) except for `Ali who was proclaimed a brother for every Muslim although the Holy Prophet fraternized him with himself.(2)

Of course, in concluding this brotherly convention between Muhajirun and Ansar, their degrees of faith and

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virtue were taken into consideration.(1) The brotherhood of the Holy Prophet and `Ali, both of whom belonged to Muhajirun is justifiable.

This treaty brought forth more unity among Muhajirun and Ansar. This is shown in the financial support of Ansar to Muhajirun.

At the time of the distribution of the booties of the Battle of Banu’l-Nazir, Ansar gave them all to Muhajirun(2). Ansar’s immense generosities caused Muhajirun to thank them in the presence of the Holy Prophet.(3) God has appreciated their benevolence in the following words:

It is the poor who fled, those who were driven from their homes and their possessions, seeking grace of Allah and His pleasure, and assisting Allah and His Apostle: These it is that are the truthful.

And those who made their abode in the city and in the faith before them love those who have fled to them, and do not find in their hearts a need of what they are given, and prefer them before themselves though

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poverty may afflict them, and whoever is preserved from the niggardliness of his soul, these it is that are the successful ones.

were obliged:

(1) Not to cooperate with the enemies of Muslims and not to provide them with horses and weaponry;

(2) Not to take any step against the Holy Prophet and Muslims;

(3) To be punished by the Holy Prophet through killing them or enslaving their children and wives or confiscating their wealth if they ever tried to ignore any article of this contract.

This contract was signed by the heads of the three abovementioned tribes, i.e. Mukhayriq, huyay ibn

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Akhtab and Ka`b ibn Asad.(1) Apparently, in those days the Jews neither felt any threat from Muslims nor reckoned their impartiality as an asset, since they assumed the Muslims' other enemies would suffice them. That was the reason for their taking the lead in signing the contract.(2) Thus, through these proceedings, the environments of Medina and the neighboring districts became calm; and the Holy Prophet was at ease. Now it was the time for him to confront Quraysh’s inevitable threats and to prepare himself for the establishment of a new society.

ibn Ubayy who had prepared himself for ascendance to power in Yathrib. However, he was deprived of such leadership due to the Holy Prophet's arrival at the political arena. For this reason, he secretly hated the Holy Prophet.(1)

The hypocrites performed a series of destructive actions against Islam. In Surahs al-Baqarah (No. 2), Al-`Imran (No. 3), al-Tawbah or Bara'ah (No. 9), al-Nisa' (No. 4), al-Ma'idah (No. 5), al-Anfal (No. 8), al-`Ankabut (No. 29), al-Ahzab (No. 33), al-Fath (No. 48), al-hadid (No. 57), al-Munafiqun (No. 63), al-hashr (No. 59) and al-Tahrim (No. 66), the Holy Qur'an has referred to them. It was more difficult for the Holy Prophet to confront this group than the unbelievers or the Jews, because he could not fight them since they pretended to be Muslims. The sabotage and obstruction of this group continued in a systematized way up to the death of `Abdullah ibn Ubayy in the ninth year of Hegira.(2) Later, this movement lost its vigor gradually.

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identified in the Holy Prophet.(1) The Holy Qur'an has condemned this approach:

And when there came to them a Book from Allah verifying that which they have, and for a time they used to pray for victory against those who disbelieve. But when there came to them (prophet) that which they did not recognize, they disbelieved in him; so Allah's curse is on the unbelievers. (2:89)

The Jews engaged in sabotage through different approaches:

(1) They had irrational and illogical demands, such as receiving a letter from the skies.(2)

(2) They put out complicated religious questions to disturb the Muslims' thoughts and minds.(3) However, they always received strong reactions and answers from the Holy Prophet.

(3) They endeavored to weaken the base of the Muslims' faith by saying:

Avow belief in that which has been revealed to those who believe, in the first part of the day, and disbelieve at the end of it, perhaps they go back on their religion. (3:72)

(4) They attempted to bring about division and turbulence among Muslims. Sha's Ibn Qays, a Jew, tried to enliven once again the old hatreds among Aws and Khazraj. However, this act became futile through the

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proper act of the Holy Prophet.(1)

taking advantage of the differences between Aws and Khazraj, the Jews weakened their powers. Through their contracts with Banu-Qaynuqa` who belonged to the tribe of Khazraj and through unity with Banu’l-Nazir and Banu-Quray¨ah who belonged to the tribe of Aws, they could easily created animosity between these two tribes.(1) After the Holy Prophet's migration, the two tribes united and went under the banner of Islam thus increasing the power of Islam tremendously. The Jews realized that the dominating power would very soon be in the hands of Muslims and they would inevitably be the big losers. This situation was quite unbearable for them.

(3) The Jewish clerks and rabbis were prestigious; they enjoyed a lot of respect among the illiterate people who blindly followed them without questioning. At times, these clerks and rabbis issued orders contrary to God's. Nevertheless, people followed them without asking.(2) Furthermore, they used to receive a lot of gifts and charities as the protectors of the Torah. They therefore feared that they might lose this source of income with the progress of Islam.(3)

(4) They showed animosity to Archangel Gabriel who

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brought God's messages to Muhammad (s);(1) they used this as an excuse to antagonize the Holy Prophet.

(5) The Holy Qur'an condemned many of the Jews' acts and behaviors and many of the Torah’s instructions(2) and disagreed with the Jews in many ordinances.(3) This issue had its roots in the past. Prior to Islam, they were culturally superior to the idolaters and they were respected by the unbelievers.(4) After the advent of Islam, this trend, more or less, continued; some times Muslims in Medina used to ask them some religious questions and they translated the Torah into Arabic for Muslims, while their religious data were mostly skewed and erroneous. For this reason, the Holy Prophet recommended Muslims not to accept their statements.(5) Once, the Holy Prophet told `Umar ibn al-Kha(6)ab, “I swear to God in Whose hands is my soul that if Moses were alive now, he would follow me.”(7) These issues added to the Jews' hatred and enmity towards Islam; they sometimes used to say, “This man has planned to disagree with all of our plans.”(8)

Holy Prophet used to pray facing the direction of Jerusalem. After the Jews surfaced their enmity, they used this issue as a means to oppose him; they said, “Muhammad is not independent in his religion; he uses our kiblah through different techniques.” They over exaggerated this issue. Now, the Holy Prophet was under undue pressure. At nights, he used to stare at the skies, waiting for some revelations so that the Jews’ propaganda could be stopped. Seventeen months after Hegira,(1) while he was performing the Noon (²uhr) Prayer with Muslims facing Jerusalem, the Angel of Revelation came to the Holy Prophet and ordered him to change the direction of kiblah towards Kaaba; therefore, he faced the Kaaba at that very prayer. This was God's command:

Indeed, We see the turning of your face to heaven, so We shall surely turn you to a kiblah which you shall like; turn then your face towards the sacred mosque. And wherever you are, turn your face towards it, and those who have been given the Book most surely know that it is the truth from their Lord; and Allah is not at all Heedless of what they do. (2:144)

The change of kiblah, which brought forth independence for Muslims, brought disastrous consequences for the Jews. They looked for another excuse and asked, “Why have Muslims put aside their

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previous kiblah?” Prior to the change of kiblah, God made the Holy Prophet realize their position; He told him that east or west, everywhere belonged to God and people should face any direction which He orders when they perform their prayers. God told the Holy Prophet that no place on the earth has any innate honor of its own:

The fool will say: what has turned them from their kiblah which they had? Say: The east and the west belong only to Allah; He guides whom He likes to the right path. (2:142)

With this answer, the Jews had no excuse to delve into negative propaganda and with the change of kiblah, the common grounds between the two old and new religions were gone and the relationship between the two weakened:

And even if you bring to those who have been given the Book every sign, they would not follow your kiblah nor can you be a follower of their kiblah; neither are they the followers of each other's kiblah; and if you follow their desires after the knowledge that has come to you, then you shall most surely be among the unjust. (2:145)

What is understood from the Qur'an is to stop the Jews' nagging and to test Muslims as to what degree they are obedient to Allah:

And thus We have made you a medium (just) nation that you may be witnesses over the people and that the Apostle may be a witness over you; and We did not make that which you would have to be the kiblah but that We might distinguish him who follows the Apostle from him who turns back upon his heels, and this was surely hard except for those whom Allah has guided aright; and Allah was not going to make your faith to be fruitless; most surely Allah is Affectionate,

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Merciful. (2:143)

In some narrations, this test of faith has been interpreted in the following way: Meccan people preferred the Kaaba; but God made Jerusalem the kiblah to distinguish the true and genuine believers who, contrary to their own wishes and only for God's sake, worship Him in this issue from those acting obstinately. For the people of Medina who preferred Jerusalem, God made the Kaaba the Muslims' kiblah so that these two could be identified.(1)

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Consequently, he decided to form a defense force. The establishment of such a force was significant because the Meccan unbelievers, who could no longer torture Muslims after the Holy Prophet's Hegira, might probably plot a military strike at the very center of Islam (i.e. Medina). For this reason, the Holy Prophet planned initial stages for the formation of an Islamic army so as to encounter any such probabilities. This army was initially very limited in human sources and military equipment. However, within a short time, it developed in both aspects. At the beginning of this army’s formation, garrisons dispatched for military operations or surveillance did not exceed sixty; and this number did not exceed two hundred at most.(1) In the second year and the Battle of Badr, the number was a little more than three hundred. However, in the eighth year and during the Meccan siege, the number of the Islam's soldiers was nearly ten thousand well-equipped soldiers.

Thus, the trend of events showed that the Holy Prophet's predictions came true. Beginning with the second year, there were numerous conflicts and confrontations between the believers and the unbelievers. If Muslims had lacked the required military forces, they would have been completely wiped out by their enemies.(2)

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this expedition, he convened a treaty with the tribe of Banu-®amrah according to which they promised to remain impartial and not to cooperate with the enemies of Islam. In Rabi` al-Awwal (the twelfth month), the Holy Prophet chased Kurz ibn Jabir al-Fahri, who had plundered a Medinan flock, up to the land of Badr but missed him. In the month of Jumada al-Akhir, the Holy Prophet, accompanied by one hundred and fifty (or two hundred) troops, chased the trade caravan of Quraysh, headed by Abu-Sufyan on his journey to Damascus, but this time, he could not reach the caravan. However, during this time, he convened a treaty with the tribe Banu-Mudlij and returned to Medina.(1) These kinds of small military operations could be called military maneuvers and strength show, but not real wars.

ignited the fire of difference between these two tribes. They had never plundered any tribe. Furthermore, when confronted by enemies, Muslims never showed any inclination to war. hamzah, for example, avoided engaging himself in war when an impartial person acted as an intermediary to stop it.(1) Considering all these factors, the Holy Prophet carried out all those military maneuvers for specific objectives. The following were among his aims:

(1) The Holy Prophet aimed at threatening the trade route from Quraysh to Damascus. The Meccan trade caravans used to move between Medina and the shores of the Red Sea as they could not go more than 130 kilometers away from the city.(2) Through his maneuvers, the Holy Prophet wished to let Quraysh know that if they wanted to hinder the Muslims' free actions in Medina, their trade routes would be endangered and their goods could be confiscated by Muslims.(3) This threat was definitely a warning for the Meccan unbelievers for whom trade was of vital significance. This treaty forced them to review their strategies against Muslims.

No doubt, Muslims were right in confiscating the Meccan goods and properties since they had forced Muhajirun out of their homes in Mecca and had confiscated their belongings.(4) It should be noted that the

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conflicts were not personal anymore; rather, these conflicts had turned into conflicts between two powers each of which did its best to weaken the other. Later on, this threat became real and Quraysh, having been worried about the cutting off of the trade route to Damascus, tried to find another route.

From Muslims' point of view, the economic damage to the enemy and the creation of worry and anxiety to them seemed more significant than the booties they could collect. This could be seen in Muslims' not receiving any wealth from the unbelievers at the expeditions of `Abdullah Ibn Jahsh and Badr.

(2) These maneuvers were a show of Muslims' military force and a warning to the Meccan unbelievers not to think of military expeditions against them. It was also

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aimed at showing the unbelievers that Muslims were strong enough to defend themselves. While the Holy Prophet was in Mecca and the number of Muslims was small, chiefs of Quraysh could easily envisage their economic fall. Now that the city of Medina had turned into a stronghold for Islam, how could the money- minded Meccan people ever feel safe? For this reason, Muslims had to be prompt so that they could discourage the unbelievers from planning anything hostile against this city.

(3) Most probably, these military actions were meant to warn the Jews of Medina as well, who had revealed their enmity, so that they might stop their conspiracies and military operations.(1)

All of them showed readiness. They therefore stayed at Nakhlah. There was a Quraysh caravan, headed by `Amr al-hazrami, returning to Mecca from Ta’if. `Abdullah and his followers wished to attack the caravan but it was the last day of Rajab. They told each other that if Quraysh entered Mecca, they could not attack them; and if they attacked them there, they would disobey and violate the prohibition of war during the sacred months.

Finally, they attacked the caravan, killing `Amr and taking two prisoners. Then, they returned to Medina with the booties and the prisoners. However, the Holy Prophet was angry with them for their act. He even refused to receive the prisoners or the booties, saying, “I had already warned you not to fight during the sacred months.”

This event had drastic consequences; Muslims did not appreciate this bloodshed during the sacred months and reprimanded `Abdullah for his action. On the other hand, Quraysh used this event as a pretext to defame the Holy Prophet by accusing him of involvement in bloodshed during the sacred months. The Jews, too, started poisoning the environment by saying that Muslims were losers. At this time, the angel of revelation appeared to the Holy Prophet, conveying the following:

They ask you concerning the sacred month about fighting in it. Say: Fighting in it is a grave matter, and hindering men from Allah's way and denying Him, and hindering men from the sacred mosque and turning its people out of it are still graver with Allah, and persecution is graver than slaughter; and they will not cease fighting with you until they turn you back from your religion, if they can. (2:217)

With the revelation of these holy verses, which

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implicitly exonerated `Abdullah, Quraysh was introduced as the agent of sedition and trouble and their sins were considered greater than the involvement in war and bloodshed during the sacred months. Upon the Quraysh representatives’ request, the Holy Prophet released the prisoners one of whom became Muslim.(1)

had three hundred and thirteen troops.(1) With the minimum amount of ammunition,(2) he headed for Badr. On his way back from Damascus, Abu-Sufyan became aware of the Holy Prophet's decision and sent a messenger to Mecca asking for help.(3) He changed his direction to the shores of the Red Sea and speedily got the caravan out of the danger zone.(4) Upon Abu-Sufyan's call, nine hundred and fifty soldiers(5) left Mecca towards Medina to help the caravan. Abu-Sufyan's obstinacy led his troops to the battle. While Muslims were looking for the signs of the Quraysh caravan, the Holy Prophet became aware of the caravan's arrival at Badr. They had to decide on the spot. This decision was hard to make because Muslims had time to confiscate the caravan, not

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to be involved in a war the troops of which were three times more numerous than theirs. If they decided to go back, they would lose the effects of their military maneuvers and the enemy would chase them and attack Medina. So, a military council was held in which the Holy Prophet sought consult of Muslims in general and Ansar in particular. Miqdad's zealous speech and Sa`d ibn `Abadah’s enthusiastic encouragements brought forth the decision to fight.(1)

The war started on the seventeenth of Ramazan.(2) At first, hamzah, `Ubaydah and `Ali killed Shaybah, `Utbah and Walid Ibn `Utbah.(3) This was a hard blow over the chiefs of Quraysh.(4) Then, war broke out. The troops of Islam overcame and by noon, the battle ended with the defeat and retreat of the enemy troops. Out of the unbelievers’ troops, seventy were killed(5) and another seventy were taken as prisoners.(6) From the Muslim troops, only fourteen were martyred.(7)

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Then, with the permission of the Holy Prophet, the prisoners were freed upon the payment of ransoms. Prisoners who were moneyless but literate were forced to teach ten Muslim individuals reading and writing to earn their freedom.(1) Later, the rest of the prisoners were freed thanks to the Holy Prophet's generosity.(2)

humiliated.(1)

The factors which contributed to this outstanding victory could be summed up as follows:

(1) This battle was excellently managed by the Holy Prophet who showed unmatched bravery.(2) Remembering this war, Imam `Ali said,

When the fire of war was kindled, we would resort to the Holy Prophet; and in those moments, he was the closest to the enemy.(3)

(2) Imam `Ali showed outstanding bravery, killing half of the slain ones.(4) Naming thirty-five of the dead ones in Badr, Shaykh al-Mufid writes down:

Narrators unanimously agree that `Ali ibn Abi-Talib killed this group except for those whose slayers are not pinpointed.(5)

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(3) In spite of the fact that some Muslims, while leaving Medina, showed reluctance to take part in the war (Qur'an, 8:5-6) and some leading personalities of Muhajirun surfaced their fear and worry at the military councils,(1) uttering despairing words, the majority of Muslim warriors showed great strength in their souls and fought bravely.

(4) Divine contributions (Qur’an 3:123) took place in different ways:

a) Raining at the night before the battle helped Muslims in water-supply and hardened the ground on which they could easily move. (Qur’an 3:123)

b) At that night, Muslims could sleep with tranquility (Qur’an 8:11);(2) the Holy Prophet alone was wakeful until morning, praying for victory.(3)

c) Angels participated in that battle. (Qur’an 8:9)(4)

d) The hearts of the unbelievers were filled with fear. (Qur’an 8:12)

consequences some of which will be dealt with hereinafter:

(1) God has previously promised Muslims victory over the Meccan troops (Qur’an 8:7) and the Holy Prophet informed them about this promise at the end of their military discussions.(1) With this victory, Muslims relied more on God's assistance and became stronger in their faith.

(2) Both the hypocrites and the Jews of Medina became upset and humiliated by this victory. When the Holy Prophet's envoy reached Medina to announce the Muslims' victory, the Hypocrites spread the rumor that Muhammad was killed and Muslims were defeated and spread apart.(2)

The Jews surfaced their hatred.(3) Ka`b al-Ashraf, one of the leaders of Jews, said,

“Those who are said to be killed were among the noblemen. If this news is correct, then to die is preferred to living on the earth.(4)

(3) The tribes living around Medina reckoned this victory as a sign of the truthfulness of Islam and showed inclinations to it. Ya`qubi writes:

“After God granted His Prophet victory in the Battle of Badr and killed many of troops of Quraysh, the Arab tribes showed inclinations to Islam and sent

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their representatives to the Holy Prophet. Four or five months after the Battle of Badr, the tribe of Rabi`ah, at the district of Dhiqar, fought with Khosrow. They told one another that they should raise the slogan of tihami (Muhammad) in the battlefield. Then, they would utter, O Muhammad, Oh Muhammad. Following this, they won over their enemies.”(1)

(4) Quraysh realized they had made mistakes in estimating Muhammad's power; they had never imagined that they could be beaten so easily by a group of escapees and farmers! They thus concluded that their trade was endangered and that they could never rely on the Mecca-Damascus trade route which crossed Badr. In a gathering, Safwan ibn Umayyah said:

“Muhammad and his followers have endangered our trade. We do not know what to do with them. They would not abandon the shores as long as the shore-dwellers have united with them. We do not know where to go. Our life subsistence in this city is provided by our summer trip to Damascus and winter trip to Abyssinia. If we are stuck in this city, we have to consume our capital and lose our income and wealth.”

Quraysh, then, decided to make their trade trip to Damascus via Iraq. Safwan headed a caravan towards Damascus through Iraq. His share of the merchandize was three hundred thousand Dinars. When the Holy Prophet knew about this, he sent a one-hundred strong troop under the leadership of Zayd ibn harithah to confiscate the goods. That was in Jumada al-Akhir, the third year of

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Hegira. The caravan men fled and the goods were confiscated by the Muslim troops. Moreover, one or two prisoners were taken to Medina.(1) This mission is referred to, in books of history,(2) as Sariyyat al-Qaradah.(3)

aggression. Once, one of these Jews insulted the wife of one of Ansar in the mart of this tribe outside Medina, creating turmoil. The woman called for help and a Muslim killed that intruder. Then, the Jews collectively killed that Muslim. Although two persons were killed, they could have stopped the situation at this point. However, they returned to their castles and readied themselves to attack. The Holy Prophet ordered their castle to be besieged. After fifteen days of siege, the Holy Prophet accepted the intermediation of `Abdullah Ibn Ubayy, who had been already an ally of them, and permitted them to leave Medina after submitting their weapons. They migrated to a place called Adhru`at, in Damascus. This event occurred in the month of Shawwal of the second year of Hegira.(1)

Having been the bravest Jews,(2) Banu-Qaynuqa` used to take pride in their power. They relied on their allies from Khazraj and Banu-`Awf.(3) However, Khazraj could not save them from banishment.(4) `Abadah ibn Samit al-`Awfi gave them up.(5) The two Jewish tribes of Banu’l-Nazir and Banu-Quray¨ah, who were the previous allies of Aws, could not help them either. Sa`d ibn Mu`adh, the chief of Aws, did not have any role in preventing their

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interferences in this crisis. Thus, the banishment of this tribe from Medina benefited Muslims in the sense that the power of these three tribes was disintegrated. It was also a warning to the other Jews of Medina not to commit the same mistake.

deserved being Fatimah’s spouse other than `Ali.”(1)

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This marriage, which took place in the simplest ceremony and with the least amount of dowry(1) and trousseau,(2) is one the most obvious manifestations of the spiritual value of the bond of marriage in Islam.

some merchants from Ansar, as well as some individuals from Muhajirun such as hamzah, preferred that the confrontation would take place outside the city borders because they believed that if Muslims remained in town, the enemy would become more daring and would consider it weak point.(1) Ultimately, the Holy Prophet accepted the proposal of this brave group of consultants and left the town for Mount Uhud(2) with a thousand troops.(3) On the way, `Abdullah ibn Ubayy returned with his troops of three hundred to Medina defying the Holy Prophet’s plan, because he had accepted the plans of the younger consultants(4) and he assumed that no war would take place (Qur’an 3:167).(5) The Holy Prophet stationed the troop which had decreased to the number of seven hundred at the outskirts of Mount Uhud, which became behind the Muslims while Mount `Aynayn was on the left side.(6) Muslim troops faced the west and the enemy faced the east.(7) Looking at the battlefield militarily, the Holy

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Prophet noticed the significance of Mount `Aynayn since the enemy might invade the Muslims while the fight was going on; therefore, he appointed an officer called `Abdullah ibn Jubayr to defend that location with fifty archers, declaring, “Whether we win or lose, you must stay here to defend us against the enemy’s attack.”(1)

Abu-Sufyan, too, engaged himself in the adoption of standard-bearers. In those days, the role of standard-bearers was of crucial importance; only the brave ones could carry the standard. The strength and stamina of a standard-bearer was a source of encouragement for the troops. On the other hand, his fall would lead to the soldier’s discouragement. Having selected the standard-bearer from among the tribe of Banu-`Abd al-Dar who were famous for their courage, Abu-Sufyan told them, “We all are sure that you, Banu-`Abd al-Dar are the worthiest of carrying the standards. Keep hold of the standards and make us feel secure in that issue; a troop falls as soon as its standards fall.”(2)

the most reliable sources, did not exceed fifty;(1) rather, it was the fall of nine standard-bearers who had been destroyed by Imam `Ali,(2) causing damage to their spirituality.(3)

On various occasions after the Battle of Uhud, Imam `Ali used to put stress on this event. In the six-member council which was held after the assassination of `Umar ibn al-Kha(4)ab to elect the next caliph, Imam `Ali referred to this event as a point of honor and the members of that committee could not deny.(5)

Upon the destruction of the standard-bearers of Quraysh, there was confusion among the enemy’s troops who chose to take flight. Upon their retreat, Muslims started collecting the booty. Most of the archers left their strongholds, assuming that the battle was over. Thus, they did not listen to the warnings of `Abdullah ibn Jubayr concerning the Holy Prophet’s orders. (Qur'an, 3:152)

killed `Abdullah ibn Jubayr with ten others. He then attacked other Muslims from behind. On the other side, `Amrah bint `Alqamah, together with other women from Quraysh, took up the standards and waved them in the air;(1) so, the battle started over again.(2) Muslims suffered a great blow this time because there was no coordination between the troops and their commanders. There were secondary factors which contributed to this defeat:

(1) A rumor had it that the Holy Prophet was killed.(3)

(2) In those days, the two parties of the military conflict did not have a uniform distinguishing them from the other party. At the battlefield, they were recognized only through slogans. The Muslim troops did not recognize one another; they therefore started drawing swords against one another.(4) For instance, husayl ibn Jabir, a Muslim warrior, was killed by his party.(5)

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However, as soon as Muslims became aware of the situation and started uttering slogans, the conditions changed drastically.(1)

(3) Another factor was the direction of the wind which was blowing from the west, making it hard for Muslims to carry on with the war.(2)

At any rate, much confusion occurred to the Muslim troops most of whom fled the battlefield or climbed the mountain, leaving the Holy Prophet in the battlefield defending Muslims and asking the escapees to stay firm.(3)

Imam `Ali and a few warriors resisted the enemies in the battlefield.(4) He fought bravely next to the Holy Prophet, defending him several times.(5)

With his unique perseverance, a Divine call echoed in the sky of Uhud, “There is no sword beyond Dhu’l-Faqar (Imam `Ali’s sword) and there is no combatant save `Ali.”(6)

In order to weaken the morale of Muslims, Abu-Sufyan started psychological warfare by uttering the slogan, “Be

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proud Hubal! Be proud Hubal.” Answering him, the Holy Prophet ordered his men to cry out, “Allah is Greater and more Majestic.” Then Abu-Sufyan said, “We have `Uzza and you have none.” The Holy Prophet asked a Muslim to reply, “We have Allah as our Master; and you have none.”(1)

It is reported that in that battle, seventy Muslims, including hamzah—the Holy Prophet’s uncle—and Mus`ab ibn `Umayr, were martyred.

Although Muslims were defeated(2) and the troops of Quraysh were intact, the chiefs of Quraysh who were worried about its consequences(3) preferred to leave Medina and go back to Mecca. They were merely happy that they had avenged their previous losses. All this happened with no damage done to either Medina or the Damascus trade route.

In order to demonstrate that Muslims were still firm and invincible, the Holy Prophet chased the enemy to the land of hamra' al-Asad in order to prevent them from attacking Medina.(4)

(1) Although Muslims were militarily defeated in this battle, they learned not to disregard the Holy Prophet’s orders. Such disobediences never happened in the following wars.

(2) The hypocrites started all sorts of conspiracies; they rejoiced on the Muslims’ defeat and blamed them.(1)

(3) The Jews, too, surfaced their hatred, saying, “No prophet has been defeated to this degree!”(2)

(4) The enemies of Islam around Medina were emboldened to initiate conspiracies. Banu-Asad, for instance, attempted to attack Medina. Other events the most famous of which were known as al-Raji` and Bi’r Ma`unah took place as a result of the Muslims’ defeat at the Battle of Uhud.

(5) Upon the return of Muslims to Medina, the shadow of grief and despair prevailed over the city. Conspiracies of the hypocrites and the Jews worsened the situation. God removed these signs of despair and strengthened the Muslims’ morale through a revelation of some verses. According to Ibn Ishaq, sixty verses were revealed about the Battle of Uhud.(3) God, in these verses, mentions the mysteries behind the Muslims’ failure and warns them not to despair even if they suffer a defeat. God the Almighty adds that the very reason for Muslims’ zeal was their seeking of worldly material. Muslims were victorious in the Battle of Badr, because they fought for the sake of God only. However, in the Battle of Uhud,

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they were after booties:

And Allah did certainly assist you at Badr when you were weak; be careful of your duty to Allah then, that you may give thanks.

And be not infirm, and be not grieving, and you shall have the upper hand if you are believers.

If a wound has afflicted you at Uhud, a wound like it has also afflicted the unbelieving people; and We bring these days to men by turns, and that Allah may know those who believe and take witness from among you; and Allah does not love the unjust.

Do you think that you will enter the garden while Allah has not yet known those who strive hard from among you, and He has not known the patient.

And certainly, you desired death before you met it; so indeed you may have seen it and looked at it.

And certainly Allah made good to you His promise, when you slew them by His permission, until when you became weak- hearted and disputed about the affair and disobeyed after He had shown you that which you loved; of you were some who desired this world and of you were some who desired the hereafter; then He turned you away from them that He might try you; and He has certainly pardoned you, and Allah is Gracious to the believers.

What! When a misfortune befell you, and you had certainly afflicted the unbelievers with twice as much, you began to say: Whence is this? Say: it is from yourselves; surely, Allah has power over all things.(1)

The defeat and failure in the Battle of Uhud damaged

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the Muslims’ military credentials badly and caused the infidels and hypocrites to indulge in conspiracies against them. Choosing this very time to attack Muslims was due to Muslims’ weak points.(1) Here are some examples of their conspiracies:

them.” The Holy Prophet, then, dispatched seventy(1) of the Qur'an instructors and true companions. Arriving at Bi’r Ma`unah, this group sent a letter to `Amir ibn Tufayl, who killed the messenger without even looking at the letter. Then, he asked Banu-`Amir to kill the Holy Prophet’s envoy. They refused to do so thanks to Abu-Bara’s promise of protection. `Amir ibn Tufayl, together with some branches of Banu-Sulaym, charged at the Holy Prophet’s envoy who, in return, had to defend themselves and all were martyred except for Ka`b ibn Zayd and `Amr ibn Umayyah al-®amari(2) who had fallen captive to the enemy and then set free. On his return to Medina, he killed two members of Banu-`Amir, without knowing that they had been on a contract with the Holy Prophet.(3)

a letter to the Holy Prophet demanding with blood-money.(1) Because Banu-`Amir had a peace treaty with Banu’l-Nazir, the Holy Prophet, along with some Ansar, went to their castle around Medina in order to ask for help in paying the blood-money. The chiefs of Banu’l-Nazir superficially agreed to the Holy Prophet’s proposal but secretly had appointed a man to throw a stone on his head to kill him. Through Divine information, the Holy Prophet became aware of this conspiracy.(2) He suddenly left for Medina, ordering them to leave it and allowing them to keep their own possessions. Being frightened, they intended to leave that place forever; but `Abdullah ibn Ubayy seduced them to resist promising that he would assist them if a war broke out. He told them that if they were expelled from Medina, he would leave there.(3)

Some historical accounts report that prior to this event, Quraysh had provoked Banu’l-Nazir to fight against Muslims.(4) These provocations were influential in the outcomes of this event.

Having been misled by `Abdullah’s false promises, Banu’l-Nazir preferred to stay. By the command of the Holy Prophet, the Muslim troops surrounded their castle for fifteen days during which there was no sign of

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supporting troops! Banu’l-Nazir had to surrender and take their possessions on camels; some going to Damascus and others to Khaybar, including their chief huyay ibn Akhtab. They were welcomed by the people of Khaybar who showed obedience to their chief.(1)

Since Banu’l-Nazir surrendered with no fight, their possessions were at the disposal of the Holy Prophet. After obtaining the consent of Ansar, the Holy Prophet divided these possessions among the emigrants.(2)

God, in the Holy Qur'an, mentions the treason of Banu’l-Nazir and their fate with the following words:

He it is Who caused those who disbelieved of the followers of the Book to go forth from their homes at the first banishment; you did not think that they would go forth, while they were certain that their fortresses would defend them against Allah; but Allah came to them when they did not expect, and cast terror into their own hands and the hands of the believers; therefore take a lesson, O you who have eyes.

And had it not been that Allah had decreed for them the exile, He would certainly have punished them in this world, and in the Hereafter, they shall have chastisement of the fire.

That is because they acted in opposition to Allah and His Apostle, and whoever acts in opposition to Allah,

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then surely, Allah is severe in requiting evil.(1)

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of idols superior to the Islamic monotheism even if they would fall out of Quraysh’s love and care. This is because the Israelites have been carrying the banner of monotheists among the idol-worshippers for centuries.(1)”

Next, the Jewish leaders resorted to the chiefs of the Ghatafan tribe asking for assistance in a war against Muslims.(2) Out of this tribe, the branches Banu-Fazarah, Banu-Murrah and Banu-Ashja` declared their cooperation.(3) Then the agreement of Banu-Sulaym and Banu-Asad was obtained.(4) Quraysh gained the support of their previous allies; Banu-Thaqif and Banu-Kinanah.(5) As a result, a strong military force consisting of ten thousand troops(6) and headed by Abu-Sufyan started moving towards Medina. On their way, huyay ibn Akhtab pledged Abu-Sufyan the cooperation of Banu-Quray¨ah who had seventy-five warriors.(7)

Concerning the great capital which both Quraysh and the Jews had spent on the preparation for this war, they considered it epoch-making and were determined to annihilate Muslims forever.

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Through the secret reports of Banu-Khuza`ah who were allies of Muslims, the Holy Prophet knew about the movement of the enemy troops.(1) In a military session held by the Holy Prophet, nobody agreed to leave

Medina; the vote was unanimous.(2)

There were palm-groves around the city and they hindered the enemy’s free access.(3) Salman proposed that they would dig a ditch around the part of the city in which there were no natural obstructions so that the enemy could not pass.(4) The ditch was dug in a short time due to the participation of all Muslims, including the Holy Prophet.(5) He had women and children relocated to the castles and shelters inside the city.(6) The Islamic forces, consisting of three thousand,(7) stayed between the

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ditch and Mount Sala`, having it behind them.(1)

The commanders of the allies expected the war to take place outside Medina like the Battle of Uhud. However, this did not happen. Arriving at the city borders and noticing the ditch, they were bewildered, because the digging of the ditch was unprecedented among Arabs as a war technique.(2) Thus, they had to surround the city behind the ditch.

The siege lasted for nearly twenty days and both parties started shooting at each other. The warriors of Quraysh started special military maneuvers to frighten the Muslim troops.(3) Due to the enemy’s siege of the city, Muslims were caught in a severe plight, which is described by God in the following words:

[Those who believe remember the day] when they came upon you from above you and from below you, and when the eyes turned dull, and the hearts rose up to the throats, and you began to think diverse thoughts of Allah. There the believers were tried and they were shaken with severe shaking. (33:10-11)

account of huyay ibn Akhtab’s temptations.(1) Moreover, they committed two other acts of treason: first, they brought ammunitions to the allies who were short in supplies. At Quba, Muslims waylaid a caravan, arranged by Banu-Quray¨ah, carrying dates and barely for the enemy and they confiscated it.(2) Second, they spread terror in women’s’ shelters. As one of them entered the castle where women were sheltering, he was killed by Safiyyah, the Holy Prophet’s aunt.(3) One night, Banu-Quray¨ah decided to attack the center of Medina. For this purpose, they sent huyay ibn Akhtab to Mecca asking the chiefs of Quraysh for one thousand troops. They also asked Ghatafan the same. Reports of these movements and proceedings reached the Holy Prophet, who, as a result, appointed five hundred warriors to protect the city, which was panic-stricken. These warriors stayed overnight crying out ‘allahu-akbar (Allah is the Most Great) and protected the civil sections.(4)

Third: Dhu’l-Qa`dah, one of the sacred months in which fighting was forbidden, was approaching. If the war could not end in Shawwal, it would certainly be postponed for three months.(1) Therefore, the Allies were determined to bring the war to an end at all costs. For this purpose, five of the bravest warriors jumped with their horses to the other side of the ditch(2)and demanded equal opponents to fight. One of them was the famous Arab warrior, `Amr ibn `Abd-Wudd, who was famed as the hero of yalyal and the hero of Quraysh.(3) Having crossed the ditch, `Amr shouted, “Is there any fighter to face me?”. None of the Muslim troops answered him.(4) He repeated this call seven time and each time Imam `Ali would rise and ask the Holy Prophet to permit him to confront this warrior. Finally, permission was given to Imam `Ali. As he proceeded to confront `Amr, the Holy Prophet said,

“The entire Islam will face the entire unbelief.”(5)

In a great duel, Imam `Ali could kill `Amr. Seeing this,

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the other four warriors who had passed the ditch flew. One of them had fallen in the ditch with his horse before he was killed by Muslims.(1)

Seeing this great bravery of Imam `Ali, the Holy Prophet said,

“Your deed today is superior to all deeds of Muslims put together. As `Amr is killed, all houses of the enemies are miserable and all houses of Muslims feel dignity.”(2)

On the word of al-hakim al-Naysaburi, a great Sunni traditionist, the Holy Prophet had declared:

“`Ali’s fighting with `Amr at the ditch is more favorable than the good deeds of all Muslims up to the Resurrection Day.”(3)

With the killing of `Amr, the Allies lost their morale; signs of defeat appeared in their camp so evidently that each tribe decided to retreat.(4)

states in the Holy Qur'an:

O you who believe; call to mind the favor of Allah to you when there came down upon you hosts; so, We sent against them a strong wind and hosts that you saw not, and Allah is Seeing what you do. (33:9)

And Allah tuned back the unbelievers in their rage; they did not obtain any advantage, and Allah sufficed the believers in fighting; and Allah is Strong, Mighty. (33:25)

Despite the enemy’s great expenditure on his war, the results of were bitter and disastrous because they could neither damage Medina nor free the Damascus trade route. In this way, Abu-Sufyan’s military credit was greatly damaged and the status of Quraysh was badly hurt. After this war, Muslims had more courage to attack their enemy. The Holy Prophet said, “From now on, we will attack and they will have no ability to attack us.”(1) The martyrs in this war are reported to be six(2) and the enemy casualties were three.(3)

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Israelites.(1)”

The Holy Prophet sent a group of captives to Najd in order to buy horses and ammunitions.(2) Referring to their disastrous fate, the Holy Qur'an remarks:

And He drove down those of the followers of the Book who backed them from their fortresses and He cast awe into their hearts; some you killed and you took captive another part. And He made you heirs to their land and their dwellings and their property; and to a land which you have not yet trodden, and Allah has power over all things. (33: 26-27)

considering the crimes they had committed, because they not only broke their contract with Muslims but also committed acts of treason inside Medina when they supplied the enemies with ammunition. We know that in warfare, these acts could not be pardonable.

The Holy Prophet could have punished them himself; but due to the request of the people of Aws, he accepted the judgment of Sa`d. This proposal was accepted by both Aws and Banu-Quray¨ah. So, there is no room left for criticism.

This question still holds: Whom should be treated kindly; and where should affections be used? Should those who have bypassed human values and whose very nature is filled with hatred be eligible to receive mercy?(1) Were the Jews of Banu’l-Nazir, under the leadership of huyay ibn Akhtab, not pardoned? However, they did not cease conspiring against Muslims and they practically waged a war against Muslims. How could huyay ibn Akhtab and Ka`b ibn Asad convince others that they would neither resume their previous viciousness nor would they prepare forces to destroy Muslims? Was leniency appropriate in their case? During the siege of

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Medina, Abu-Sufyan wrote a threatening letter to the Holy Prophet, saying:

“I swear to Lat and `Uzza that I have come here with this army to fight you. We will not need any further fight; I am determined to destroy you this time. However, if we return to Mecca, we will make for you a day like the day of Uhud when women will not stop mourning.”(1)

If this had happened would Banu-Quray¨ah not have cooperated with the Allies?

Sa`d’s judgment was in accordance with the commands in the Torah—whose penal laws must have been known by him—that reads:

“When you approach a city to engage in fight, first propose peace. If they open the doors to you, all of them will fall slaves to you. If they refuse to have peace, then you must fight and kill their men, take their women and children as captives, and confiscate their property.”(2)

(2) A contemporary researcher has denied the punishment of Banu-Quray¨ah. Referring to some records, he has reckoned impossible such a severe punishment by the Holy Prophet.(3) Although his statements could be used as a protection to defend the

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Muslim status vis-à-vis the European and Zionist propaganda, the reasons this writer has offered are not valid.(1) In his reasoning, he has not paid attention to verse 26 of Surah al-Ahzab (No. 33) which refers to this issue. Furthermore, after the Battle of the Allies (Ahzab), there is no mention of Banu-Quray¨ah in historical records. If the issue of punishment had not existed, there should have been some mentions of their existence as such.

told him that he hid two camels which he had determined to offer to the Holy Prophet as her daughter’s ransom. The Holy Prophet first freed Juwayriyah and then married her.(1)

In honor of the Holy Prophet, Muslims made free the captives who had now become relatives by marriage of the Holy Prophet. For this reason, Juwayriyah is remembered as the Holy Prophet’s most blessed wife.(2) This marriage could be regarded as an instance of the Holy Prophet’s marriages purposed for social consequences and personal considerations.

they used to entertain the pilgrims—an act that they always recognized as point of honor. Now if they stopped the Muslim participants, this would bring forth people’s hatred.(1)

In Dhi’l-Qa`dah, the Holy Prophet entered Mecca with eighteen hundred followers.(2) During this journey, he ordered his men to carry only one sword as weapon and take the sacrificial camels from Medina so that everybody could see that they did not intend to fight.

Quraysh became aware of the Holy Prophet’s decision to enter Mecca. For this purpose, they left the city with their military troops. The Holy Prophet unwillingly had to stop at the land of hudaybiyah. Quraysh sent several couriers to find out his intention. Each time, he informed them, “We have no intention to fight; we have come here to perform the ceremony of `Umrah.” However, Quraysh still made trouble for their entrance into Mecca.

to explain to Quraysh the Holy Prophet’s aims. It took long for `Uthman to return. Rumors had it that he was killed.(1) Now, the Holy Prophet asked his men to gather under a tree to convene an allegiance for perseverance.(2) After this ceremony, it turned out that the rumor of `Uthman’s death was not true. Since this allegiance was held under a tree and God was pleased with the believers who participated in it, this pledge of allegiance was called Rizwan (Pleasure) Allegiance or the Pledge of the Tree.(3)

(2) Muhammad and Muslims should not enter Mecca that year. The next year, Quraysh would leave Mecca for three days during which Muslims would enter there to perform `Umrah on condition that each Muslim could carry one sword only.(1)

(3) If an individual from Quraysh joins Muhammad without his father’s consent, Muhammad shall send him back to Mecca; but if one of Muhammad’s followers joins Quraysh, he will never be sent back.

(4) Every tribe is free to enter into treaties with Muhammad or Quraysh.(2)

(5) No party will betray the other or enter in a truce with the other party’s enemy and no party will practice any act of aggression against the other.

(6) Following the faith of Islam is free in Mecca and nobody is persecuted because of his belief.(3)

(7) Anyone of Muhammad’s followers who enters Mecca for hajj or `Umrah or for trade shall have his or her life and property protected.(4)

After reaching an agreement over the principles of truce, Imam `Ali wrote down the written form of the truce beginning with, ‘bismillahir-rahmanir-rahim (In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful)’. The representative of Quraysh objected to this statement and to the title of ‘rasul allah (the Messenger of God)’ given to the Holy Prophet. It took them a long time to settle this dispute. Finally, the Holy Prophet consented to it after realizing its benefits. While Imam `Ali was erasing the statement, the Holy Prophet foretold him, “One day, this will happen to you and you will have to accept.”(1)

This prediction came true when Imam `Ali had to erase the title of ‘amir al-mu'minin (the Commander of the Believers)’ during the truce he had to sign with Mu`awiyah immediately after the Battle of Siffin.(2)

this truce would carry numerous political and social benefits for Muslims some of which were the following:

(1) The enemy recognized Muslims and their creed through signing the truce. Before that, the unbelievers had never confessed Islam as an independent religion. Moreover, they always worked and wished for destroying this religion.

(2) The invulnerable wall between Muslims was broken by this truce. Due to opening a free passage between Mecca and Medina and the communications between the two parties, many unbelievers became Muslims after they had listened to the reasoning of Islam. The number of converts was more than the number of Muslims up to that point.(1) It is worth noting that the Holy Prophet’s followers during this journey numbered no more than 1800, but two years later and during the conquest of Mecca, the number was more than ten thousand. Considering this favorable situation for Muslims, Imam al-Sadiq says,

“Two years after the hudaybiyah Truce, Islam was

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almost the prevailing religion of Mecca.”(1)

(3) Before the hudaybiyah Truce, the enmity and aggressions of Quraysh had not given a chance to the Holy Prophet to propagate his ideology inside and out side the Arabian Peninsula. After that, the Holy Prophet could liquidate the surroundings of Medina and dispatch several missionaries to different territories. Inviting the world leaders to Islam could take place only after the hudaybiyah Truce.

(4) This truce indirectly led to the seizure of Mecca because, in accordance with its forth paragraph, the alliance of tribes with Quraysh or Muslims was a matter of free choice and the tribe of Khuza`ah allied with Muslims. However, Quraysh attacked this tribe and thus breached the truce causing the Holy Prophet to seize Mecca.

Regarding such bright results, the hudaybiyah Truce can be seen as a great victory for Muslims. Surah al-Fath was revealed to the Holy Prophet when he was on his way to sign on this truce.(2) God called this treaty as a clear victory.(3)

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worlds. (21:107)

All these holy verses were revealed in

Mecca; a fact demonstrating that the general invitation to Islam took place from the very initial stages. However, despite these authentic reasons, some European scholars, such as Goldziher, have claimed that Muhammad’s widespread faith only took place later on and that his very initial instructions did not go farther than the needs of the ignorant Arabs of his time.(1) This claim is too worthless to require evidence.

seventh. Of course, this was just the beginning of the universal invitation to Islam. Moreover, from that day on and up to his last day of life, the Holy Prophet continued writing letters to the different countries of the world.(1) The content of all these letters was identical and all of them were written in a simple, explicit and decisive style. However, reactions of the world leaders were not identical.

themselves strong enough to stop the attacks of Muslims.(1)

The Jews of Khaybar made use of any chance available to try to destroy the newly built Islamic government as their city was turned into a permanent center for conspiracies against Islam. Having been defeated in Medina, the chiefs of Banu’l-Nazir joined Khaybar to cooperate with them against Islam.

In the sixth year of Hegira, Sallam ibn Abi’l-huqayq, one of Banu’l-Nazir's chiefs who had obtained the leadership of the Jews of Khaybar through cooperation with the tribe of Ghatafan and other infidel tribes, gathered a great troop to fight against Muslims. After he was killed by Muslims due to plotting conspiracies against them, people of Khaybar appointed Usayr ibn Zarim as their leader.(2) This man, too, engaged himself in aggression and provocation of tribes against Muslims.(3)

To eradicate the previous signs of enmity, the Holy Prophet dispatched a group under the supervision of `Abdullah ibn Rawahah to the newly appointed leader to secure his consent for peace. The new leader, together with `Abdullah and a group of Jews, was on his way to Medina to talk to the Holy Prophet. However, on the way, he changed his mind and tried to kill `Abdullah. Due to this confrontation, he and his company all were killed.(4) In this way, the Holy Prophet’s peaceful plans became null

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and void.

A contemporary historian states that in addition to these conspiracies, Muslims anticipated that the Jews of Khaybar who had already incurred the hostility of Muslims might be used by the Iranian or Roman empires to prepare for an attack against Islam as a compensation for the defeat and failure of Banu-Qaynuqa`, Banu’l-Nazir, and Banu-Quray¨ah.(1)

After the convention of the hudaybiyah Truce through which the Holy Prophet was at ease regarding the dangers from the south, he, together with fourteen Muslim warriors, headed to the north to disarm the Jews of Khaybar. That was in the beginning of the seventh year of Hegira. He chose such a direction for his involvement as to cut the relations of Ghatafan, the powerful ally of Khaybar, with the people of Khaybar depriving them of any cooperation with each other.(2) Using the tactic of surprise, all the castles and strongholds of Khaybar fell to Muslims and the Jewish chiefs presumed predicament with dawn.

The encounter was unequal; warriors of Khaybar were in their stronghold, they had the doors firmly closed and through their guards on the towers and high walls hindered any Muslim approach. In one attack, fifty Muslim warriors were wounded.(3)

Besides, the warriors of Khaybar had sufficient supplies, but Muslims felt short of supplies as the war

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continued. Finally, with great hardships on the part of Muslims, the castes fell one after another. However, the last castle, called Qamus, which was supervised by the famous Jewish hero named Marhab, continued to defend itself and Muslim warriors were unable to capture.

One day, the Holy Prophet gave the banner to Abu-Bakr and the next day to `Umar with some troops to attack the castle, but they both failed.(1) Seeing this, the Holy Prophet declared:

“Tomorrow, I will hand this banner to one who, with God's support, will capture this castle; one who is loved by God and His Apostle and God and His Apostle love; he is not a quitter.”

That night, every Muslim desired that he would be given the banner. When dawn came, the Holy Prophet asked, “Where is `Ali?” They replied, “He is suffering a severe eye-ache and he is now at rest.” The Holy Prophet summoned `Ali and cured his eyes. Submitting the banner to `Ali, the Holy Prophet ordered him,

“Move towards them; as soon as you arrive at their castle, invite them to Islam and remind them of their rights. I swear to God that to conduct one person to the truth is better for you than having red-haired camels.”(2)

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Imam `Ali headed for the mission; he could kill Marhab through a heroic encounter in which Imam `Ali showed a unique bravery. He then could conquer that castle.

Attacking the castles of Khaybar, which were centers of conspiracy against Islam, shows a number of important matters some of which are as follows:

(1) This shows that the Holy Prophet enjoyed an effective management when he chose the quite suitable person to this mission.

(2) He used effective military tactics, such as the principle of surprise and the gathering of information.

(3) Imam `Ali showed such a unique bravery that none else had.

Imam `Ali's self-sacrifice and bravery in this war was so great that the Holy Prophet appreciated it and praised him for his vigor and stamina, declaring his precedence before all other Muslims.

Muslims also remembered this praise on many occasions. For instance, when he came to power, Mu`awiyah ordered everybody to curse Imam `Ali openly. Sa`d ibn Abi-Waqqas abstain from carrying out this order. When Mu`awiyah asked for the reason, Sa`d answered,

“I will never curse him, because I remember that the

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Holy Prophet mentioned three of his virtues, which I wished I could have only one of them. (1) In one of the wars [i.e. Tabuk], the Holy Prophet appointed him as his successor in Medina. `Ali asked, ‘Do you leave me with women and children in town?’ The Prophet answered, ‘Do you not like to be my successor in the same way as (Prophet) Aaron was the successor of (Prophet) Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?’ (2) In the war of Khaybar, the Prophet declared, ‘I will submit the banner to a person who loves God and His Apostle and God and His Apostle love him.’ On that day, every one of us wished to gain such a prestige. The Prophet then ordered his men to summon `Ali. `Ali came, while he was suffering from a bad eye-ache. The Prophet rubbed his eyes with his own saliva. Suddenly, `Ali's pain drove off and he received the banner from the Holy Prophet. God caused the castle to be conquered through `Ali. (3) When it was arranged for the Holy Prophet to enter into Mubahalah [mutual cursing] with the Christian priests of Najran, this verse was revealed to him: ‘Say: Let us call our sons and your sons and our women and your women. (3:61)’ The prophet thus called `Ali, Fatimah, hasan and husayn and declared, ‘O God, these are my Household.’”(1)

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Referring to that epoch-making war, Imam `Ali says,

“We were faced with a mountain of men and military ammunitions; their castles were invincible and their number was huge. Their heroes left the castles each day, asking for warriors. Any one of us who arrived at the battlefield was killed. When the fire of war was blazing and the enemy was asking for warriors to duel with; and when our troops were suffering from fright and fear; and they were looking at one another in a timid way, I was asked to go on the scene. The Prophet asked me to rise and attack the castle. I went forward and confronted their hero, killing him on the spot; I did the same thing with others. I made many of them retreat. Then, like a lion chasing the prey, I followed them until they took shelter inside the castle. Then they closed down the gates. I tore off the gate and entered the castle alone… I had nobody to help except for God…”(1)

The people of Khaybar surrendered after the fall of the last castle and the war terminated. The casualties of the troops of Khaybar reportedly were forty-three(2) and the number of the martyrs was twenty-eight.(3)

Upon their surrender, the Jews of Khaybar asked the Holy Prophet to permit them to stay on their lands for cultivation. He agreed on condition that they should yield half of their yearly produce to the Islamic government(1) and that they should leave when the Holy Prophet wished so.(2) This treaty was in effect until the reign of `Umar when they took part in some conspiracies against Muslims. For this reason, `Umar banished them to Damascus.(3)

Damascus appointed by the Roman emperor,(1) arrested the Holy Prophet’s courier and, having known the nature of his mission, killed him at the village of Mu’tah. This event saddened the Holy Prophet greatly.(2)

Although the murder of one person could not be considered good reason to start war, the murder of the Holy Prophet’s representative, which was against ethical codes, was in fact a sort of military threat on the part of the governor of Damascus vis-à-vis the peaceful invitation to the Holy Prophet’s faith. He therefore decided to send a troop over there. This movement could be interpreted as a sign of military power.

Based on these facts, the Holy Prophet dispatched to Mu’tah an army of three thousand troops under the commandership of Ja`far ibn Abi-Talib,(3) Zayd ibn harithah and `Abdullah ibn Rawahah respectively.(4)

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The Islamic troops faced the one hundred thousand troops of Rome near the village of Mu’tah. The three Muslim commanders bore the banner in turn and they all were martyred. Then, the Muslim troops elected Khalid ibn Walid as the commander-in-chief. Using special tactics, he frightened the enemy and then issued the command to retreat to Medina.(1)

Al-Waqidi records that the martyrs of this war were eight(2) but Ibn Husham records them as twelve.(3) In some contemporary records, it is written that they were seventeen.(4) The tombs of these martyrs rest next to the city of Mu’tah;(5) each one of the commanders has a magnificent shrine with a dome. Next to the tomb of Ja`far, there is built a handsome mosque.(6)

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Following the chief of Khuza`ah’s request for assistance, the Holy Prophet announced a general mobilization(1) and decided to attack Mecca. In order for Quraysh not to know the Muslims’ plan and to surprise them in an attack so that Mecca could be captured with no bloodshed, the Holy Prophet concealed his destination(2) and ordered his men to watch the Meccan roads(3) asking God to keep Quraysh unaware of his plan.(4)

The Holy Prophet, with an army of ten thousand soldiers, headed for Mecca.(5) His tactic was successful. The spies of Quraysh were kept in the dark up to the moment when Muslim troops were stationed at the gates of Mecca.

`Abbas, the Holy Prophet’s uncle, lived in Mecca up to that year. As he was heading for Medina, the Islamic troops were heading for Mecca. He met the Holy Prophet at al-Juhafah and returned to Mecca with him. At the last night of the stationing of the Muslim troops outside the gates of Mecca, `Abbas saw Abu-Sufyan outside the city and took him to meet the Holy Prophet.(6) Observing the Islamic troops, Abu-Sufyan became frightened. The Holy Prophet pardoned him and declared, “Anybody who takes

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sanctuary in the Kaaba, stays at home or takes shelter at Abu-Sufyan’s house is unharmed.”

Prior to the arrival of the Islamic troops in Mecca, Abu-Sufyan informed the people of the Holy Prophet’s amnesty. This plan helped the lack of bloodshed and the surrender of the city; so, Mecca collapsed. Only in one section of the city where some obstinate people continued resisting were some people killed.(1)

Arriving at Mecca, the Holy Prophet circumambulated the Kaaba while he was riding on a camel and hitting with his cane the idols which had been fastened to the Kaaba with tins, saying,

The truth has come and the falsehood has vanished; surely, falsehood is a vanishing thing. (17:81)

It is well-known for historians and narrators, Imam `Ali then climbed upon the Holy Prophet’s shoulder and destroyed the big idols.(2) Imam al-Sadiq states that the idol

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which Imam `Ali destroyed was Hubal. On the Holy Prophet’s order, this idol was buried under the Banu-Shaybah Gate, one of the entrances to the Kaaba. Therefore, it is recommended that people enter the Kaaba from this gate.(1)

repeating the statement of my brother, (Prophet) Joseph: There shall be no proof against you this day, Allah may forgive you, and He is the most Merciful of the merciful. (the Holy Qur'an 12:92) Go, you are free now.(1)

Having surrendered with humiliation and expecting a severe revenge by the Holy Prophet, the unbelievers of Quraysh were highly moved by this great pardon of the Holy Prophet. Next to the Kaaba, he addressed people, saying,

“God has consecrated Mecca from the very beginning of creation. This place shall remain holy and sacred until the Resurrection Day. No Muslim is allowed to cause bloodshed on this land nor is he or she allowed to cut a tree from this place. No one is allowed to do a wrong thing to it now or from now on. Let those who are present tell those who are absent…(2)

Upon the conquest of Mecca, the Holy Prophet convened a contract with Meccan women with the following stipulations:

“Do not associate aught with Allah, do not steal, do not commit fornication, do not kill your children, and do not bring a calumny which you have forged of yourselves and do not disobey the Holy Prophet.(3)

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Some well-known figures, who later gained high positions, accepted Islam during the conquest of Mecca. Among them were Abu-Sufyan and his son Mu`awiyah.

Due to the hard living conditions of people, God ascribes a moral superiority to Muslims prior to the conquest of Mecca:

And what reason do you have that you should not spend in Allah’s way? And Allah’s is the inheritance of the heavens and the earth; not alike among you are those who spent before the victory and fought and those who did not: they are more exalted in rank than those who spent and fought afterwards, and Allah has promised good to all; and Allah is aware of what you do.

the Holy Prophet accepting Islam.(1) Except for two tribes, namely Hawazin and Thaqif, all other tribes accepted Islam.(2) Among these tribes that accepted Islam were Qushayr ibn Ka`b(3), Bahilah,(4) Tha`labiyyah,(5) Suda',(6) Banu- Asad(7), Baliy,(8) `Udhrah,(9) Thumalah(10) and huddan(11) all of whom came to meet the Holy Prophet, announcing their acceptance of Islam. After a war between Hawazin and Ta’if that took place after the conquest of Mecca, the representatives of the strong tribe of Thaqif who were equal to Quraysh in military strength came to see the Holy Prophet and put forward some pre-conditions for their conversion to Islam. Although the Holy Prophet rejected their preconditions, they accepted Islam unconditionally.(12)

weeks(1) arranging its affairs. He ordered people to break their idols that they kept at their houses.(2) He dispatched some agents to destroy the idol-houses around Mecca.(3) During this time, he was informed that Hawazin, supported by the tribes of Thaqif, Nasr, Jusham, and Sa`d ibn Bakr together with a group of Banu-Hilal under the command of Malik ibn `Awf al-Nasri were planning to attack Mecca.(4) They gathered at a place called Awtas. Having made sure of this information, the Holy Prophet sent a spy to study the situation. It was clear that the army of Hawazin was on its way to Mecca.(5)

At this time, the Holy Prophet decided to use his usual military tactics in taking the initiatives and depriving the enemy of any chance to attack. For this purpose, he appointed `Attab ibn Usayd as the governor of Mecca(6) and he left to face the enemy with twelve thousand soldiers, ten thousand of whom were previously with him and two thousand of the newly converted Muslims.(7) He

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put Banu-Sulaym in front of the army.(1) On the way, some Muslim troops, due to their great number, became haughty, declaring that they would never be defeated.(2) However, the result was the reverse and, as God has mentioned in the Holy Qur'an (9:25), the great number did not produce any result.

Under the darkness of dawn, the Muslim army headed for hunayn(3) but the warriors of Hawazin who had hidden behind cliffs and in the valleys of hunayn suddenly charged at the Muslims.(4) This sudden attack bewildered the Muslims. First, Banu-Sulaym retreated and fled the scene.(5) Following them, others escaped. Only Imam `Ali and a few others remained beside the Prophet and fought bravely.(6)

According to Shaykh al-Mufid, only nine individuals of Banu-Hashim, one of whom was Imam `Ali, stood next to the Holy Prophet. `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib stood to the Holy Prophet’s right, al-Fazl ibn `Abbas to the left and Imam `Ali in front of the Holy Prophet

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unsheathing his sword and fighting bravely.(1)

Having noticed the flight of Muslims, the Holy Prophet, who had always been a symbol of patience, endurance, perseverance and bravery, did not show any sign of weakness; he stood steadfastly in the battlefield. Addressing the escapees, he said, “O people! Where are you fleeing? Come back; I am the Prophet of God; I am Muhammad ibn `Abdullah.” He then asked `Abbas to call at people and remind them of their pledges. With a loud tone, `Abbas cried out, “O people of the Tree Pledge; O people of Surah al-Baqarah; to where are you escaping? Remember your allegiance with the Holy Prophet.”(2)

Due to the Holy Prophet’s perseverance and calling at the escapees to return, Muslims gradually returned, gathered around the Holy Prophet and resisted the enemy. In a short time, the banner-bearer of the enemy was killed by `Ali and through Divine assistance, the army of Hawazin was severely damaged. Four thousand captives, twelve thousand camels and a lot of booties were soon in the hands of Muslims. After the war, the Holy Prophet freed the captives on the request of the chiefs of the defeated tribes who embraced. This war caused the Muslims four martyrs.

Referring to the initial failure of Muslims and their victory in the light of Divine assistance, the Holy Qur'an says,

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Certainly Allah helped you in many battle fields and on the day of hunayn, when your great numbers made you vain, but they availed you nothing and the earth became strait to you not withstanding its spaciousness, then you turned back retreating. Then Allah sent down His tranquility upon His Apostle and upon the believers, and sent down hosts which you did not see, and chastised those who disbelieved, and that is the reward of the believers. (9:25-26)

report, Hercules had allied with some Arab tribes like Lakhm, Judham, `Amilah and Ghassan, his military pioneers had advanced as far as Balqa',(1) and the emperor himself resided in Homs.(2)

This report reached the Holy Prophet at a time when it was extremely hot(3) and it was the harvest season. People were lived under harsh conditions and life became unbearable.(4) The Holy Prophet called for general mobilization and asked people of Mecca and the nomads for financial assistance.(5) Contrary to his previous military expeditions which were kept secret to the last moment, this time the Holy Prophet announced his military target to be Tabuk(6) so that the troops could prepare themselves for the hardships of the journey.(7)

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Despite their hard conditions, Muslims gave generously(1) and thirty thousand troops,(2) together with ten thousand horses(3) and twelve thousand camels,(4) were ready to move. However, the hypocrites not only refrained from taking part in the battle with no valid reasons(5) but also discouraged people to go claiming that it was so hot.(6) A verse was revealed to the Holy Prophet reprimanding their situation. (the Holy Qur'an 9:81) Other Muslims unjustifiably did not join the Muslim troops and the Holy Qur'an called them those who left behind and blamed them. (the Holy Qur'an 9:81) Others, too, were deprived of taking part in the battle due to their lack of ammunitions. (the Holy Qur'an 9:87, 93)

to the hypocrites, there was the worry and fear concerning the beaten and defeated enemies of Islam in Mecca, its vicinities and the nomads living around Medina. Thus, it was crucial for a strong man to protect the newly established Islamic state while the Holy Prophet was away. For this purpose, the Holy Prophet appointed Imam `Ali as his successor, telling him, “In order to manage the affairs of Medina, either you or I should be present.”(1)

Regarding this event, Mas`udi writes:

“It is advisable to say that the Prophet appointed Imam `Ali as his successor in Medina so that he could control those who opposed participating in the Prophet's military mission.”

Imam `Ali used to take part in all campaigns and battles of the Prophet(2) and acted as a standard-bearer.(3) The hypocrites, however, spread the rumor that the Holy Prophet let `Ali stay in Medina because he no longer loved him! Having heard this rumor, Imam `Ali became upset; he took his sword and attended the Holy Prophet's presence at al-Jurf.(4) He rephrased the hypocrite’s claim and complained about the whole situation. The Holy Prophet replied:

“They are liars! You are my successor. Return and act as my successor. Are you not happy that your position to me is the same as (Prophet) Aaron’s position to

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(Prophet) Moses except that there will be no prophet after me?”(1)

However, Shaykh al-Mufid accounts for this event in the following manner:

“My brother; Go back to your position, because nobody else, except for you or me, can govern Medina. You are my representative—from among my family members—on the citizens of my city and my nation. Are you not satisfied that your position to me is the same as (Prophet) Aaron’s position to (Prophet) Moses except that there will be no prophet after me?”

Ibn `Abd al-Barr al-Qurtubi, a Sunni scholar of the fifth century, writes:

The Holy Prophet appointed `Ali as his successor during the war of Tabuk; he was elected to be the Holy Prophet’s successor for his family and for the people of the city, telling him, “Your position to me is the same as Aaron’s position to Moses… etc.”

On the words of al-Bukhari and Muslim, the Holy Prophet likened `Ali to Prophet Aaron in relation to Prophet Moses.(2)

This epoch–making statement of the Holy Prophet,

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which is called hadith al-manzilah (Narration of Position) is a clear proof of Imamate. Although this statement is uttered only on a specific occasion, Imam `Ali used to resemble Prophet Aaron in all cases of his associations with the Holy Prophet.(1)

Islamic territory.(1)

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of this region; they learnt how to face such hardships. Likewise, they learned the techniques of military expeditions against the super powers of those days. That is why the first location that the Islamic army could conquer after the demise of the Holy Prophet was the land of Damascus.

(3) In this call for general mobilization, true believers could be distinguished from hypocrites and laggard ones. A sort of distinction took place in the Muslim troops.(1)

(4) The boost in the military prestige of the Muslims brought forth the Arab's inclination to Islam and their representatives' readiness to show obedience.

The spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula

The conquest of Mecca and the war of Tabuk were pivotal in the spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The Tabuk expedition was a great maneuver in which the Muslims' military prestige was boosted and everybody could realize that Islam had reached such a status that it could confront the world's super ­powers. The political and military consequences of this maneuver were so great that, upon the Holy Prophet's return to Medina, the chiefs of many Arab tribes who had refrained from turning to Islam up to that time entered Medina and announced obedience. The number of these chiefs who entered Medina to meet the Holy Prophet was so great that the ninth year of Hegira is termed Sanat al-Wufud (Year of Delegation).(2)

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months and know that you cannot weaken Allah and that Allah will bring disgrace to the unbelievers. And an announcement from Allah and His Apostle to the people on the day of the greater pilgrimage that Allah and His Apostle are free from liability to the idolaters; therefore, if you repent, it will be better for you, and if you turn back, then know that you will not weaken Allah; and announce painful punishment to those who disbelieve. Except those of idolaters with whom you made an agreement, then they have not failed you in anything and have not backed up any one against you, so fulfill their agreement to the end of their term; surely, Allah loves those who are careful of their duty. So when the sacred months have passed away, then slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take from captives and besiege them and lie in wait for them in every ambush, then if they repent and keep up prayer and pay the poor – rate, leave their way free to them; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. (9:1-5)

Prophet, he said, “You had assumed me capable of doing this mission; but very soon you put me aside. Have you received any order from God regarding this issue?” The Holy Prophet replied, “God has ordered me to carry out this command either in person or by one who belong to me.”

(5) No infidel shall enter Paradise.(1)

Following this warning, the infidels blamed themselves, saying, “Now that Quraysh have converted to Islam, what shall we do?” So, they had to embrace Islam(2).

From that year on, no infidel performed the hajj ceremonies; and no one did so naked.(3)

followers to stop worshiping people, start worshiping God, leave allegiance to people and accept loyalty and allegiance of God; lest they should pay a special tax or be prepared for a war.(1)

According to some narrations, the Holy Prophet mentioned the following holy verse in his letter:

Say: O followers of the Book! come to an equitable proposition between us and you that we shall not serve any but Allah and (that) we shall not associate aught with Him, and (that) some of us shall not take others for lords besides Allah; but if they turn back, then say: Bear witness that we are Muslims. (3/64)(2)

Receiving the letter, the Bishop convened a session with religious personalities to discuss the issue, since the Christian scholars had known some prophesized features of the Holy Prophet. They therefore decided to send a convoy to Medina in order to meet the Holy Prophet and study his character.

Upon their arrival in Medina, headed by three religious personalities including the bishop himself, the Holy Prophet met them and invited them to Islam. He recited some verses of the Holy Qur'an. The envoy replied, “We have been Muslims before you.” The Holy Prophet said, “You are liars. There are three things which hinder you from being Muslims: you worship the Cross, eat pork, and assign a child for God.”

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Then, the topic of Jesus being God or God's servant started. Relying on the miracles of Jesus Christ, such as giving life to the dead, knowing the unseen, healing the diseased, and, especially, being born with no father, Christians considered him God. The Holy Prophet insisted that Jesus was a human being—a fact that the Christians could not accept, entering into lots of discussions. Then, the Holy Prophet received this revelation:

Most certainly, they disbelieve who say: Surely, Allah - He is the Messiah, son of Marium. (5:17)

Surely, the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him, Be, and he was. This is the truth from your lord, so be not of the disputers. (3:60)

But whoever disputes with you in this matter after what has come to you of knowledge, then say: come to us call our sons and your sons and our women and your women and our near people and your near people, then let us be earnest in prayer, and pray for the curse of Allah on the liars. (3:61)

After the revelation of these verses, the Holy Prophet said, “God has ordered me to do mutual cursing with you if you do not become Muslims.”(1) They replied, “We have to think about it.” Then, they went back and started counseling. The bishop warned them that Muhammad was

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God's Messenger and that to accept mutual cursing with him would bring about chastisement of God for them. However, they did not agree; rather, they insisted on mutual cursing (Mubahalah). They decided that the next day would be the date of Mubahalah. Then, the bishop said, “Look and wait to see how Muhammad attends the session; avoid taking part in it if he accompany his family members with him, because this means that he believes in what he says or else he would not endanger the lives of his near relatives. However, if he comes with his followers, then take part and you will know that his claims are baseless.”(1)

The following day, the Holy Prophet came with `Ali, Fatimah, hasan, and husayn.(2) Looking at the Holy Prophet's company, the bishop asked, “Who are these?” He was told, “This is his cousin, the woman is his daughter and these two are her sons.”(3) The bishop told his followers, “These are persons who if they ask God to cut a mountain, the mountain shall certainly be cut off. Do not enter in it lest you will be destroyed and there will remain no Christian on the earth.” The group dispensed with the mutual cursing(4) and, on terms of a treaty, they had to pay tax.(5)

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uniform (ihram) next to the idol Manat, which was on the Mecca-Yathrib route at the seashore(1) and those who put the hajj form on from there would not cross the distance between Safa and Marwah, which they had to cross seven times.(2) The unbelievers, contrary to the Abrahamic traditions, moved to al-Muzdalifah from `Arafat prior to sunset.(3)

All these had contributed to the deformation of the true features of the Abrahamic hajj and to its mixing with all sorts of superstitions.

With the revelation of the verse on the obligation of hajj (22:27), the Holy Prophet informed the Muslims in advance and headed towards hajj with great numbers of the people of Medina and nomads.(4) He taught the Muslims the genuine Abrahamic hajj for the first time. He insisted that Muslims should learn the ceremony very carefully.(5) He used to say, “Take good care of all the rituals of hajj because they are handed down to us by Prophet Abraham.”(6)

During this journey, the Holy Prophet could abolish all the innovations of the unbelievers, especially those of Quraysh. Despite the fact that he himself was from Quraysh, he stayed at `Arafat and then moved to al-

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Muzdalifah.(1) This was an order issued by Allah, stating,

Then, hasten on from the place from which the people hasten on and ask the forgiveness of Allah; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. (2:199)

After sunset, the Holy Prophet left `Arafat.(2)

Due to its different aspects of significance, this pilgrimage is called by different titles: Farewell Pilgrimage (hijjat al-Wada`), the Islamic hajj (hijjat al-Islam) and the Conveyance Pilgrimage (hijjat al-Balagh).(3)

Concerning women's rights, he emphatically said,

Act kindly to women since they are God's assets in your hands and are made legal for you through Divine laws.

Let those who are present inform others that there shall be no prophet after me and there shall be no ummah after you, Muslims.

Towards the end of his speech, the Holy Prophet declared null and void the customs and ceremonies of the Ignorance Era.(1)

thorough purifying. (33:33)(1)

Both Sunni and Shi`ite scholars unanimously agree that these four persons took part in Mubahalah together with the Holy Prophet.(2) Emphasized this great virtue,

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Sa`d ibn Abi-Waqqas is reported to have said, “When the verse of Mubahalah was revealed to the Holy Prophet, he called `Ali, Fatimah, hasan and husayn, saying “O God, these are my Household.”(1)

Having reported the issue of Mubahalah and `A’ishah's narration, al-Zamakhshari says, “This issue is the most rationale for the virtue and righteousness of the Holy Prophet's Household.”(2)

After narrating the event of Mubahalah, al-Bayzawi, says, “This indicates the righteousness of the Holy Prophet and the virtue of his Household.”(3)

In his book entitled Sa`d al-Su`ud, Sayyid Ibn Tawus writes, “Muhammad ibn al-`Abbas ibn Marwan, in his book of Ma Nazala min al-Qur'an fi al-Nabi wa Ahli Baytihi, has narrated the event of Mubahalah on the authority of fifty-one reporters among whom were grand companions of the Holy Prophet.”(4)

At the end of this article, it is worth mentioning that there are disagreements concerning the year, month and day of the Mubahalah.(5)

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`Ali's enemies. O God, assist the friends of `Ali and make miserable the foes of `Ali. O God, let `Ali be in the pivotal center of righteousness.”

At this time, the following verse was revealed:

This day have I perfected for you your religion and completed My favor on you and chosen for you Islam as a religion. (5:3)

The perfection of religion has been thus declared through the appointment of `Ali as the successor of the Holy Prophet. After that, the Holy Prophet's companions congratulated `Ali for this sublime position.(1)

This was a sketch of the significant and famous event at Ghadir Khumm which has been discussed in reference books from different dimensions.

`Allamah Amini, in his worthy book of al-Ghadir, has thoroughly dealt with this historic event. Here, we shall mention a few points:

(1) The event of Ghadir is the most significant document for Imam `Ali's Divinely commissioned leadership and succession to the Holy Prophet (Wilayah) although it was not the only document. In this book, we have alluded to the fact that the Holy Prophet, since the early days of his prophethood and on various occasions such as the event of calling his close relatives to the new faith, referred to Imam `Ali's Wilayah, because of the importance of leadership to the people's fate.

Because the succession to the Holy Prophet is a matter defined by none but God, we have seen that during the

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first years of his general and open invitation to Islam and at the time introducing Islam to the tribes and in an answer to the proposal made by the chief of Banu-`Amir ibn Sa`idah, the Holy Prophet declared,

“My successor is decided by God alone. God will appoint anyone for this position that He desires.”

For many years, the Holy Prophet always laid emphasis on the question of his succession. He used to bring to light a certain personality, making sacrifices for Islam the criterion in selecting his successor. All these factors entail one conclusion, which is that Imam `Ali was such a unique person that he deserved to be the Holy Prophet’s successor. If truth be told, none of the Holy Prophet’s companions preceded Imam `Ali in virtuous features that prepare him to be the one and only successor of the Holy Prophet.

(2) The authenticity of the announcement of Imam `Ali’s next leadership at Ghadir Khumm is undeniable; therefore, some Sunni scholars confess to this issue.(1)

As `Allamah Amini has proved in al-Ghadir, this

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historic event was reported by one hundred and ten companions of the Holy Prophet, eighty-four others, and three hundred and sixty Sunni narrators and scholars who recorded it in their books and confessed to its authenticity.(1) As a matter of fact, the event Ghadir Khumm is the most famous and authentic of all events that took place during the Holy Prophet’s lifetime.

Narrators have reported the event of Ghadir Khumm and historians seem to have censored these narrators. Among historians, Ya`qubi has dealt with this event with a short description following the event of the Farewell Pilgrimage.(2) Although this event is not mentioned in

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Tarikh al-Tabari, which is supposed to have dealt with all historical events of Islam, the author has written a book on the verification of the event of Ghadir Khumm in a book entitled Kitab al-Wilayah.(1) This book existed up to eighth century—a fact confirmed by al-Najashi (450AH)(2) and Shaykh al-Tusi (385-460 AH).(3)

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Stating that the event of Ghadir Khumm too soon after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Ibn Kathir (774 AH) adds, “Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn Jarir Tabari, the historian, has shown interest in this hadith and collected its wordings in a two-volume book.”(1) He then mentions some ways of narrating this event as recorded by Tabari.

He elsewhere writes, “The book of Tabari which I saw is of two big volumes comprising the narrations related to the event of Ghadir Khumm.(2)